Key Concepts, Contexts & Terms
Academic Supervisor
REGULATIONS FOR THE PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR DEGREE (PHD) AT THE NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (NTNU)
"Section 7.1 Appointment of academic supervisors
The Faculty appoints academic supervisors. As a general rule, the PhD candidate is to have at least two academic supervisors, of which one will be designated as the main supervisor. The main supervisor must be appointed at the time the candidate is admitted.

The main supervisor has the primary academic responsibility for the candidate. If the Faculty appoints an external main supervisor, a co-supervisor who is an academic staff member at NTNU is to be appointed.

Co-supervisors are experts in the field who provide academic supervision and who share the academic responsibility for the candidate with the main supervisor.

The provisions on impartiality in the Public Administration Act Chapter II concerning disqualification (Sections 6 to 10) [provided below] apply to the academic supervisors and appointed mentors.

All academic supervisors must hold a doctoral degree or equivalent qualification in the relevant research field and must be working actively as researchers. At least one of the appointed supervisors must have previous experience or training in academic supervision of PhD candidates.

In addition, the Faculty may appoint one or more mentors who do not meet the qualification requirements for supervisors, but who still provide supervisory assistance.

The PhD candidate and academic supervisor may ask the Faculty to appoint another supervisor for the candidate. The supervisor may not withdraw before a new supervisor has been appointed. Any disputes regarding the academic rights and obligations of the supervisor and of the candidate are to be referred by these parties to the Faculty for review and a final decision.

Section 7.2 Content of the academic supervision
The supervisors are to give advice on formulating and delimiting the thematic area and research questions, discuss and assess hypotheses and methods, discuss the results and the interpretation of these, discuss the structure and work on the thesis, including the outline, choice of language, documentation, etc., and provide guidance on the academic literature and data available in libraries, archives, etc. The supervisors must also advise the candidate on issues related to research ethics in connection with the thesis.

The candidate must have regular contact with his or her supervisors. The frequency of contact between the parties is to be stated in the annual reporting of progress; cf. Section 9.

The candidate and supervisors have a mutual obligation to keep each other informed about the PhD Regulations for NTNU Approved by the Board of NTNU on 23 January 2012 7 progress of the work and to assess it in relation to the project description.

The supervisors are required to follow up academic issues that may cause a delay in the progression of the candidate’s PhD education, so that it can be completed within the nominal period of study."
(Source: PhD Regulations for NTNU Approved by the Board of NTNU on 23 January 2012​: REGULATIONS FOR THE PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR DEGREE (PHD) AT THE NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (NTNU) Norwegian: Forskrift for graden philosophiae doctor (ph.d.) ved Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelig universitet (NTNU)​)

Act relating to procedure in cases concerning the public administration (Public Administration Act)
"Chapter II. Concerning disqualification
Section 6. (requirements as to impartiality)
§ 6. (habilitetskrav).

A public official shall be disqualified from preparing the basis for a decision or from making any decision in an administrative case
  • a) if he himself is a party to the case;
  • b) if he is related by blood or by marriage to a party in direct line of ascent or descent, or collaterally as close as a sibling;
  • c) if he is or has been married or is engaged to a party, or is the foster parent or foster child of a party;
  • d) if he is the guardian or agent of a party to the case or has been the guardian or agent of a party after the case began;
  • e) if he is the head of, or holds a senior position in, or is a member of the board of directors or the corporate assembly of
    • 1.a cooperative company, or an association, savings bank or foundation that is a party to the case, or
    • 2.a company which is a party to the case. Nevertheless, this does not apply to a person who performs services or work for a company that is wholly-owned by the State and/or a municipality, and such company, either alone or together with other similar companies or the State and/or a municipality, wholly owns the company that is a party to the case.
He is similarly disqualified if there are any other special circumstances which are apt to impair confidence in his impartiality; due regard shall inter alia be paid to whether the decision in the case may entail any special advantage, loss or inconvenience for him personally or for anyone with whom he has a close personal association. Due regard shall also be paid to whether any objection to the official's impartiality has been raised by one of the parties.

If the superior official is disqualified, the case may not be decided by any directly subordinate official in the same administrative agency.

The rules governing disqualification shall not apply if it is evident that the official's connection with the case or the parties will not influence his standpoint and neither public nor private interests indicate that he should stand down.

The scope of the second and fourth paragraphs may be further specified in regulations prescribed by the King."

Section 7. (Provisional decision) Regardless of whether an official is disqualified, he may deal with a case or make a provisional decision in a case if it cannot be postponed without causing considerable inconvenience or harm.

Section 8. (Decision concerning the question of disqualification)
The official shall himself decide whether he is disqualified. He shall submit the question to his immediate superior for decision if a party so requests and this may be done without undue loss of time, or if the official himself otherwise finds reason to do so.

In collegiate bodies the decision shall be made by the body itself, without the participation of the member concerned. If, in one and the same case, the question of disqualification should arise in respect of several members, none of them may participate in the decision regarding their own or another member's disqualification, unless the collegiate body would otherwise lack a quorum for deciding the question. In the latter case all attending members shall participate.

A member shall give ample notice of any circumstance which disqualifies or may disqualify him. Before the question is decided, his deputy or other substitute should be summoned to attend and participate in the decision if this may be done without undue expense or loss of time.

Section 9. (Appointment of a substitute)
If an official is disqualified, a substitute shall, if necessary, be appointed or elected in his stead.

If the appointment of a substitute will be particularly inconvenient, the King may decide that the case in question shall be transferred to a coordinate or superior administrative agency

Section 10. (Persons to whom the rules on disqualification shall apply) Besides public officials, the provisions of this Chapter shall apply correspondingly to any other person who performs services or work for an administrative agency. The provisions shall not apply to members of the Council of State in their capacity as members of the government."
(Source: Lovdata.no: English: Act relating to procedure in cases concerning the public administration (Public Administration Act) Norwegian: Lov om behandlingsmåten i forvaltningssaker (forvaltningsloven) (Forvaltningsloven – fvl)

Authorship
Who Is an Author? 
International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE)
"The ICMJE recommends that authorship be based on the following 4 criteria:
  1. Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; AND
  2. Drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; AND
  3. Final approval of the version to be published; AND
  4. Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved." (Source: International Committee of Medical Journal Editors, "Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals Updated December 2016" http://www.icmje.org/ & http://www.icmje.org/icmje-recommendations.pdf, resectively)

Authorship (continued)
"Scientific integrity, truthfulness and accountability"
  • "5 Researchers must respect the contributions of other researchers and observe standards of authorship and cooperation.
    Researchers must observe good publication practice. They must clarify individual responsibilities in group work as well as the rules for co-authorship. Honorary authorship is unacceptable. When several authors contribute, each authorship must be justified. Justified authorship is defined by four criteria, in accordance with the criteria drawn up by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) 3:
    a) Researchers must have made a substantial contribution to the conception and design or the data acquisition or the data analysis and interpretation; and
    b) researchers must have contributed to drafting the manuscript or critical revision of the intellectual content of the publication; and
    c) researchers must have approved the final version before publication; and
    d) researchers must be able to accept responsibility for and be accountable for the work as a whole (albeit not necessarily all technical details) unless otherwise specified.
    All authors in a multidisciplinary publication must be able to account for the part or parts for which they have been responsible in the research work, and which part or parts are the responsibility of other contributors.

    All those who meet criterion a) must be able to meet b) and c). Contributors who do not fulfil all the criteria must be acknowledged."     (Source: "Scientific integrity, truthfulness and accountability" from "Guidelines for research ethics in science and technology" Issued by The Norwegian National Committee for Research Ethics in Science and Technology (2016). Text: The Norwegian National Committees for Research Ethics, Last updated: Tuesday, June 28, 2016)

Authorship (continued) 
"Misusing authorship to build career" ("Misbruker forfatterskap for å bygge karriere")
  • Authorship is  easy to count, but difficult to handle. Every third researcher admits having awarded co-authorship to one who does not deserve it.
    Forfatterskap er lett å telle, men vanskelig å håndtere. Hver tredje forsker innrømmer å ha tildelt medforfatterskap til en som ikke fortjener det. (Source: "Misusing authorship to build career" ("Misbruker forfatterskap for å bygge karriere")  Ida Irene Bergstrøm. De nasjonale forskningsetiske komiteene. Sist oppdatert: 21. mars 2018.  Original version: "Honor Where Honor is Due" ("Æres den som æres bør") Ida Irene Bergstrøm, Editor/Redaktor Forsknings etikk Et magasin fra De nasjonale forskningsetiske komiteene. NR. 1 • Mars 2018 • 18. årgang. p. 4-7.)

  • When the International Committee for Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) made their first guidelines for articles in biomedical journals in 1979, no authorship was mentioned, says Charlotte Haug.
    Haug is an international correspondent for The New England Journal of Medicine, and senior researcher at SINTEF. From 2002-2015 she was editor of the magazine for the Norwegian Medical Association.
    Da den internasjonale komiteen for medisinske tidsskriftredaktører (ICMJE) lagde sine første retningslinjer for artikler i biomedisinske tidsskrifter i 1979, var ikke forfatterskap nevnt, forteller Charlotte Haug.
    Haug er internasjonal korrespondent for The New England Journal of Medicine, og seniorforsker ved SINTEF. Fra 2002-2015 var hun redaktør for Tidsskrift for den norske legeforening.

    "In 1979, it was thought that everyone had the same meaning about what the authorship meant," said Haug.
    Only in 1988 came the first criteria for authorship in the ICMJE Guidelines, also known as the Vancouver Recommendations."
    – I 1979 tenkte man at alle hadde samme mening om hva forfatterskap innebar, sier Haug.
    Først i 1988 kom de første kriteriene om forfatterskap i ICMJE-retningslinjene, også kjent som Vancouveranbefalingene.

    "The following updates have been about refining these first criteria," says Haug.
    – Påfølgende oppdateringer har handlet om å finpusse disse første kriteriene, forteller Haug.

    "Until 2000, it was argued whether those who had gathered data and contributed in analyzes should be included. Over the 2000s, a number of profiled cases came about falsification and manufacturing.
    In 2013, therefore, we received a fourth criterion that states that everyone is responsible for the entire article. That means everyone is responsible for saying that "I believe in this - and I think something is wrong, I am responsible for investigating it."
    – Frem til 2000 kranglet man om hvorvidt de som hadde samlet inn data og bidratt i analyser skulle få være med. Utover 2000-tallet kom en rekke profilerte saker om falsifisering og fabrikkering.
    I 2013 fikk vi derfor et fjerde kriterium som sier at alle er ansvarlige for hele artikkelen. Det betyr at alle er ansvarlige for å si at «jeg tror på dette – og tror jeg noe er feil, har jeg ansvar for å få det undersøkt».

    Other discussions have been about wrongful authors who have not contributed and thus should not have their name there. This is often called honorary authorship or guest authorship. Another problem is ghost writers - writers who have contributed or might be behind the entire article, but do not stand as authors.
    Andre diskusjoner har handlet om urettmessige forfattere som ikke har bidratt og dermed ikke burde hatt sitt navn der. Dette kalles gjerne æresforfatterskap, eller gjesteforfatterskap. Et annet problem er ghost writers – forfattere som har bidratt eller kanskje står bak hele artikkelen, men ikke står som forfattere.

    "Several cases revealed that agencies had been paid by the pharmaceutical industry to write articles," says Haug.
    – Flere saker avslørte at byråer hadde blitt betalt av legemiddelindustrien for å skrive artikler, forteller Haug.     (Source: ibid.)

  • Charlotte Haug recalls that the ICMJE criteria have been developed by editors, to know who they can hold responsible for the text they publish.​
    Charlotte Haug minner om at ICMJE-kriteriene er utviklet av redaktører, for å vite hvem de kan holde ansvarlig for teksten de publiserer.
    • "There is a reason why this type of criteria was first developed in medicine and health. It is essential that research teams have done what has been done. Anything else can actually put patients at risk. The ICMJE guidelines are not just four criteria," emphasizes the former journal editor. "There are lots of text that elaborate on what they are about and how they should be interpreted."
      – Det er en grunn til at denne typen kriterier først ble utviklet i medisin og helse. Det er helt vesentlig at det er hold i forskningen, at man har gjort det som står der. Noe annet kan faktisk sette pasienter i fare.
      ICMJE-retningslinjene er dessuten ikke bare fire kriterier, understreker den tidligere tidsskriftredaktøren. Det er masse tekst som utdyper hva de handler om og hvordan de skal tolkes.
      "There is an incredible amount of conflict tied to authorship, it is simply an incredibly large conflict area. It's hardly possible to believe if you have not been in the research world, "says Haug.
      – Det er utrolig mye konflikt knytta til forfatterskap, det er rett og slett et utrolig stort konfliktområde. Det er nesten ikke til å tro hvis du ikke har vært inne i forskningsverdenen, sier Haug.

      "At the same time, multi-literacy in medicine is a form of quality assurance. You should not sit in a room alone and keep up with yours. It's not that you necessarily cheat consciously, but you can leave results that do not fit completely, slip away, or move some numbers. It is easy and human to believe very much in one's own hypothesis. Therefore, you must be more. If Sudbø had been the sole author, as it practically looked like he was, the editors would have suspected at once."
      – Samtidig er det sånn at flerforfatterskap innen medisinen er en form for kvalitetssikring. Du skal ikke sitte i et rom alene og holde på med ditt. Det er ikke det at man da nødvendigvis jukser bevisst, men man kan la resultater som ikke passer helt, gli bort, eller flytte noen tall. Det er lett og menneskelig å tro veldig på sin egen hypotese. Derfor skal man være flere. Hvis Sudbø hadde vært eneforfatter, som det i praksis nesten så ut som han var, så ville redaktørene fattet mistanke med en gang. (Source: ibid.)

  • However, Charlotte Haug is tired of discussing authorship criteria.
    Charlotte Haug er imidlertid lei av å diskutere forfatterskapskriterier.
    • "This should be expressed in discussions about what is happening at the institutions. What kind of culture it is for collaboration, for sharing data. It's a bit like #metoo. We can hold on for a while and take the bad ones. But first and foremost, this is about culture that is established over a long period of time, which makes it clear what is going beyond borders. It should trigger discussions about how we actually organize and conduct research. What we mean by researching and writing together."
      – Det dette bør munne ut i er diskusjoner om hva som foregår på institusjonene. Hva slags kultur det er for samarbeid, for deling av data. Det er litt som med #metoo. Vi kan godt holde på en stund til og ta de slemme. Men først og fremst dreier dette seg om kultur som etableres over lang tid, der det blir klart hva som er å overskride grenser. Det bør utløse diskusjoner om hvordan vi egentlig organiserer og driver med forskning. Hva vi mener med å forske, og å skrive sammen.       (Source: ibid.)

Birth
  • Post-term birth  birth >=42 completed gestational weeks
  • Preterm birth  birth at a gestational age <37 completed gestational weeks
  • Term birth  birth >=37 and <42 completed gestational weeks 

Citation Distortions
"How citation distortions create unfounded authority: analysis of a citation network"
"Vocabulary of citation distortions

Citation
  • Both scholarly and social forms: the scholarly form connects statements to the broader medical literature, the social form (social citation) includes self serving and persuasive subtypes
Citation distortions
  • Self serving citation is always a distortion
  • Persuasive citation may be necessary to communicate new, sound claims to the scientific community; it may, however, have distorted uses—citation bias, amplification, and invention
Citation bias
  • Systematic ignoring of papers that contain content conflicting with a claim
  • Bolster claim; justifying animal models to provide opportunities to amplify claim
Amplification
  • Expansion of a belief system without data
  • Citation made to papers that don’t contain primary data, increasing the number of citations supporting the claim without presenting data addressing it
Invention
  • Citation diversion—citing content but claiming it has a different meaning, thereby diverting its implication
  • Citation transmutation—the conversion of hypothesis into fact through the act of citation alone
  • Back door invention—repeated misrepresentation of abstracts as peer reviewed papers to fool readers into believing that claims are based on peer reviewed published methods and data
  • Dead end citation—support of a claim with citation to papers that do not contain content addressing the claim
  • ​Title invention—reporting of “experimental results” in a paper’s title, even though the paper does not report the performance or results of any such experiments"
    (Source: "How citation distortions create unfounded authority: analysis of a citation network" Steven A Greenberg. BMJ 2009;339:b2680)

​Cognitive dissonance  "In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort (psychological stress) experienced by a person who simultaneously holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values. The occurrence of cognitive dissonance is a consequence of a person's performing an action that contradicts personal beliefs, ideals, and values; and also occurs when confronted with new information that contradicts said beliefs, ideals, and values." (Source: Wikipedia: Cognitive dissonance)
​
Confirmation bias  "the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories." (Source: Wikipedia: Confirmation bias)

Conflate-to-obfuscate  a technique whereby two or more sets of information, texts, ideas, methods, etc. are combined into one set and presented to be synonymous in an effort to confuse the real differences between or among them. This is also known as combine-to-confuse and fuse-to-confuse. (See: "Confused on conflated" Merrill Perlman. Columbia Journalism Review February 9, 2015)
  • Conflate: combine (two or more sets of information, texts, ideas, etc.) into one
  • Obfuscate: make obscure, unclear, or unintelligible; bewilder (someone)
Corruption
"CORRUPT ORGANIZATIONS OR ORGANIZATIONS OF CORRUPT INDIVIDUALS? TWO TYPES OF ORGANIZATION-LEVEL CORRUPTION"
  • "We focus on two fundamental dimensions of corruption in organizations: (1) whether the individual or the organization is the beneficiary of the corrupt activity and (2) whether the corrupt behavior is undertaken by an individual actor or by two or more actors. We use these dimensions to define a new conceptualization of corruption at the organization level: the organization of corrupt individuals. We contrast this conceptualization with the prevailing concept of organizational corruption and develop propositions that highlight their differences." (Source: "CORRUPT ORGANIZATIONS OR ORGANIZATIONS OF CORRUPT INDIVIDUALS? TWO TYPES OF ORGANIZATION-LEVEL CORRUPTION"  JONATHAN PINTO, CARRIE R. LEANA, FRITS K. PIL. Academy of Management Review 2008, Vol. 33, No. 3, 685–709. p. 685)

  • '"We offer our typology of corruption as a way of clarifying theory and research at the organization level. We also aim to address why different types of organizations may manifest different corruption phenomena, or why attempting to control one form of corruption may unwittingly lead to the creation of the other. Our multilevel approach encompasses bottom-up and top-down corruption, both composition and compilation emergent processes, and both selection and socialization in organizations. Finally, we address the relatively small but important literature on criminogenic mechanisms—that is, mechanisms that produce or tend to produce crime or criminal behavior. While this literature focuses almost exclusively on “crime-coercive” mechanisms, we focus more on “crime-facilitative” ones (Needleman & Needleman, 1979). (Source: Ibid., p. 685-686)
    ​
  • "TWO TYPES OF CORRUPTION AT THE ORGANIZATION LEVEL
    Using the two dimensions of beneficiary and collusion, we suggest that corruption at the organization level can manifest itself through two very distinct phenomena: an organization of corrupt individuals (OCI), in which a significant proportion of an organization’s members act in a corrupt manner primarily for their personal benefit (similar to the economics perspective), and a corrupt organization (CO), in which a group collectively acts in a corrupt manner for the benefit of the organization (similar to the sociology perspective). In both forms of corruption, the organization is the focal unit—that is, the level to which generalizations are made—and both the levels of measurement and the levels of analysis can be at the individual, group, organization, and environmental levels. (Source: Ibid., p 688)

Council of Science Editors  is a dynamic community of editorial professionals dedicated to the responsible and effective communication of science.
Dates  All dates are in dd.mm.yyyy format unless otherwise indicated.

Death
  • Infant death  death <1 year of life
  • Perinatal death  stillbirth or death <=6 completed days of life
  • Neonatal death  death >6 and <=27 completed days of life; Neonatal Mortality Rate  (NMR)
  • Post-neonatal death  death >= 28th completed day of life and <= 1 completed year of life

Dolichocephaly, more commonly "long head" or "breech head"; Cephalic index (CI) <= 75

Doublethink   "Doublethink is the act of simultaneously accepting two mutually contradictory beliefs as correct, often in distinct social contexts. [1] Doublethink is related to, but differs from, hypocrisy and neutrality. Also related is cognitive dissonance, in which contradictory beliefs cause conflict in one's mind. Doublethink is notable due to a lack of cognitive dissonance—thus the person is completely unaware of any conflict or contradiction." (Source: Wikipedia: Doublethink)
  • "DOUBLETHINK means the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one’s mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them. The Party intellectual knows in which direction his memories must be altered; he therefore knows that he is playing tricks with reality; but by the exercise of DOUBLETHINK he also satisfies himself that reality is not violated. The process has to be conscious, or it would not be carried out with sufficient precision, but it also has to be unconscious, or it would bring with it a feeling of falsity and hence of guilt" (Source: George Orwell, "1984" Part Two, Chapter 9)
  • "It was as though some huge force were pressing down upon you — something that penetrated inside your skull, battering against your brain, frightening you out of your beliefs, persuading you, almost, to deny the evidence of your senses. In the end the Party would announce that two and two made five, and you would have to believe it. It was inevitable that they should make that claim sooner or later: the logic of their position demanded it. Not merely the validity of experience, but the very existence of external reality, was tacitly denied by their philosophy. The heresy of heresies was common sense."  (Source: George Orwell, "1984" Part One, Chapter 7)
  • "Freedom is the freedom to say that two plus two makes four. If that is granted, all else follows" (Source: ibid.)

Estimation vs. Prediction 
The terms "estimation" and "prediction" have been conflated and and are commonly used interchangeably as synonyms in the ultrasound biometry literature, which is unfortunate. Consequently, this document will also use these terms somewhat interchangeably. However, in classical statistical inference there is a clear distinction between an estimator and predictor. An estimator uses data to guess at a parameter or coefficient while a predictor (e.g., an ultrasound fetal metric measurement) uses data to guess at some random value (e.g., GA or EDD, depending on the model) that is not part of the dataset used to create the model (i.e., regression line/curve, etc.). Estimation accounts for uncertainty in the regression line/curve (i.e., the model). Prediction accounts for uncertainty in the regression line/curve (i.e., the model) plus the uncertainty in the individual observation (e.g., an individual ultrasound fetal metric measurement). Therefore, since both estimation and prediction account for uncertainty in the regression line or curve (i.e. the model), some slack will be cut and both terms, "estimation" and "prediction" will be used in reference to model-derived predictions/estimations (e.g., GA or EDD predictions/estimations) made from predictors (i.e., fetal metric measurements: CRL, HC, BPD, FL, AC, MAD, etc.)

Given that the terms "estimation" and "prediction" have been conflated and used extensively as synonyms there are those who would similarly conflate other terms such as "estimate" and "calculate." For example, NCFM eSnurra Group intentionally conflate the "prediction/estimation" of GA with the "prediction/estimation" of EDD in order to obfuscate the differences between these 2 completely different methods of establishing GA and EDD, respectively, for individual pregnancies. Moreover, NCFM eSnurra Group then describes these methods as being synonymous to healthcare authorities, healthcare professionals and the general public when, in reality, these 2 separate prediction/estimation methods have distinct differences and each with very different "prediction/estimation" objectives. This science-bending, conflate-to-obfuscate strategy for GA and EDD prediction/estimation is a real-world example of bending policy-relevant science; and, unfortunately, in this example Norway's national obstetric & fetal medicine policy was bent to cause increased medical risks, critical medical mistakes and grievous medical harms (including perinatal death),unnecessarily, for some of Norway's women and their fetuses/babies.

Evidence-based medicine (EBM)
"Evidence based medicine is the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. The practice of evidence based medicine means integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research. By individual clinical expertise we mean the proficiency and judgment that individual clinicians acquire through clinical experience and clinical practice. Increased expertise is reflected in many ways, but especially in more effective and efficient diagnosis and in the more thoughtful identification and compassionate use of individual patients' predicaments, rights, and preferences in making clinical decisions about their care." (Source: "Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't" David L Sackett, William M C Rosenberg, J A Muir Gray, R Brian Haynes, W Scott Richardson. BMJ  1996;312:71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71. Published 13 January 1996)

"Evidence based medicine is not “cookbook” medicine. Because it requires a bottom up approach that integrates the best external evidence with individual clinical expertise and patients' choice, it cannot result in slavish, cookbook approaches to individual patient care. External clinical evidence can inform, but can never replace, individual clinical expertise, and it is this expertise that decides whether the external evidence applies to the individual patient at all and, if so, how it should be integrated into a clinical decision. Similarly, any external guideline must be integrated with individual clinical expertise in deciding whether and how it matches the patient's clinical state, predicament, and preferences, and thus whether it should be applied. Clinicians who fear top down cookbooks will find the advocates of evidence based medicine joining them at the barricades." (Source: ibid.)

"There is an illusion that the ability to synthesise evidence provides all of the knowledge needed to practice medicine: that one has only to read the literature, or to adopt the guideline, to gain a mastery of the field. Governments, policy makers and payers have been seduced into believing that the rationalist EBM paradigm holds the solution to, for example, the task of providing high-quality medical care to an ageing population with complex needs. There is a push to codify and regulate the practice of medicine, to apply guidelines, and to pay for performance to standardise care, in the hope that this approach to evidence translation will reduce cost and improve outcomes that are of importance to institutions; Sackett warned of the risk of evidence-based medicine being hijacked to this purpose in 1996."  (Source: "The 11th hour-time for EBM to return to first principles?" Denise Campbell-Scherer. BMJEvidence-Based Medicine 2012;17:103-104. DOI: 10.1136/ebmed-2012-100578. Pubmed ID22736667.)

"Evidence-based medicine is the conscientious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients or the delivery of health services. The terms ‘evidence-based health care’ and ‘evidence-based practice’ are often used interchangeably with ‘evidence-based medicine’" (Source: "SUPPORT Tools for evidence-informed health Policymaking (STP)" Report from Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services  No 4–2010, Chapter 1, p. 16-25. ISBN print 978-82-8121-313-5, ISBN digital 978-82-8121-334-0, ISSN 1890-1298)

Evidence-informed health policymaking (EIHP)  "evidence-informed health policymaking is an approach to policy decisions that aims to ensure that decision making is well-informed by the best available research evidence. It is characterised by the systematic and transparent access to, and appraisal of, evidence as an input into the policymaking process" (Source: ibid., p. 16-25)

Fetal Age  Fetal age is the actual age of the developing and growing fetus/baby from the day of conception. Gestational age is the age of the pregnancy from the first day of the last normal menstrual period (LMP).

Fetal Biometry (also known as fetometery) "Fetal biometric parameters are antenatal ultrasound measurements that are used to indirectly assess the growth and well being of the fetus." (Source: Radiopedia: fetal metrics)

Gestational Age (GA)  Gestational age (GA) is the age of the pregnancy from the first day of the last normal menstrual period (LMP). Fetal age is the actual age of the developing and growing fetus/baby from the day of conception.

Gestational Age (GA) Notation & Math(s)
Gestational weeks are expressed as completed weeks. Gestational days are expressed as completed days.
  • For example, day 3 of completed week 17 is expressed as: 17+3 or 17w+3 or 17w+3d or 17/3 or 17+3/7
  • The first day of completed week 17 is expressed as: 17+0
  • The last day of completed week 17 is expressed as 17+6; [Note: 17+7 is never valid; XXw+7 is never valid; XX+7/7 is never valid]
  • The last day of completed week 17 is 17w+6
  • The day after 17w+6 is 18w+0, which is the first completed day of completed week 18.
  • GA in completed days: 17w+3 = (17 weeks x 7 days/week) + 3 days = (119 days) + 3 days = 122 days

Gross Negligence (grovt uaksomt) or Willful Negligence
Harm Principle (skadefølgeprinsippet)
Research Ethics Act ​
  • "3.2. The Harm Principle as Guidance for Criminalisation
    In light of this pragmatic tradition, a strongly principled statement on criminalisation was somewhat surprisingly given in NOU 2002: 4. Here, the harm principle (skadefølgeprinsippet) was adopted and applied as a principal starting point for the criminal code. The code of 2005 is based on the idea that punishment should solely be used as a reaction towards actions that lead to, or could lead to, harm being inflicted on someone. 24 The idea is that a specific behaviour should not be criminalised only because the majority dislikes it. The use of punishment must be rational and humane. 25 Punishment should only be used in cases where compelling reasons justify it, and actions that lead to the harm of people or assets will typically constitute such compelling reasons. The harm principle was the fundamental starting point for the work of the Legislative Commission of the Criminal Code. 26" (Source: "An Outline of the New Norwegian Criminal Code" JØRN JACOBSEN & VILDE HALLGREN SANDVIK. Bergen Journal of Criminal Law and Criminal Justice • Volume 3, Issue 2, 2015, pp. 162-183)
    Citation References [links added]
    24  This was set out in NOU 2002: 4, see in particular pp. 79-81.
    25  Ot.prp. nr. 90 (2003-2004) p. 89
    26   NOU 2002: 4, p. 79.

Health Systems & Policy Monitor (HSPM)
"The European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies supports and promotes evidence-based health policy-making through comprehensive and rigorous analysis of the dynamics of health care systems in Europe." 
Health Technology Assessment (HTA)
  • "What is Health Technology Assessment (HTA)?
    HTA is the systematic evaluation of the properties and effects of a health technology, addressing the direct and intended effects of this technology, as well as its indirect and unintended consequences, and aimed mainly at informing decision making regarding health technologies. HTA is conducted by interdisciplinary groups that use explicit analytical frameworks drawing on a variety of methods. (Source: "Welcome to INAHTA"  INAHTA Website:  http://www.inahta.org/)

    A health technology is defined as an intervention that may be used to promote health, to prevent, diagnose or treat acute or chronic disease, or for rehabilitation.  Health technologies include pharmaceuticals, devices, procedures and organizational systems used in health care. (Source: ibid.)

    For more definitions, see the International HTA Glossary." (Source: ibid.)

Medical Mistake or Medical Error  "Medical error has been defined as an unintended act (either of omission or commission) or one that does not achieve its intended outcome, 3 the failure of a planned action to be completed as intended (an error of execution), the use of a wrong plan to achieve an aim (an error of planning), 4 or a deviation from the process of care that may or may not cause harm to the patient. 5"  (Source: "Medical error—the third leading cause of death in the US" Martin A Makary & Michael Daniel. BMJ 2016;353:i2139; or the PDF version)

Meta-analysis is a statistical technique used to pool results from multiple individual studies, usually 6 or more individual studies. For example:
  • "Similar issues arise in some epidemiological studies—eg, had investigators researching possible aetiological factors in sudden infant death syndrome taken proper account of what was already known, the lethal effect of babies lying on their front would have been recognised at least a decade earlier than it was, and tens of thousands of infant deaths could have been avoided. 78 Similarly, a cumulative meta-analysis 79 of 55 studies done in a 24 year period showed that the research had repeatedly confirmed that never-smoking women who had been exposed to smoking via their husbands were more likely than others were to develop lung cancer." (Source: "How to increase value and reduce waste when research priorities are set" Iain Chalmers, Michael B Bracken, Ben Djulbegovic, Silvio Garattini, Jonathan Grant, A Metin Gülmezoglu, David W Howells, John P A Ioannidis, Sandy Oliver. The Lancet 2014; 383: 156–65 January 11, 2014. Published Online January 8, 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62229-1)

Naegele's rule  is a 200+ year-old algorithm or 'rule' used to calculate the expected date/day of delivery (EDD) of a pregnancy from the first day of a woman's last menstrual period (LMP) date; this is done by adding a year, subtracting three months, and adding seven days. The result is approximately 280 days (or 40 weeks) from the first day of the last menstrual period. Naegele's rule was originally formulated by Hermanni Boerhaave, however, Naegele popularized it (while giving full attribution to Boerhaave) and it became known as Naegele's rule. (Source: "Naegele’s rule: a reappraisal")
Obviate  "to anticipate and prevent (as a situation) or make unnecessary (as an action), to make (something) no longer necessary : to prevent or avoid (something) Obviate has a number of synonyms in English, including "prevent," "preclude," and "avert"; all of these words can mean to hinder or stop something. When you prevent or preclude something, you put up
an insurmountable obstacle." (Source: Merriam-Webster: obviate)
​
Peer Review​
  • "Ethics of Peer Review: A Guide for Manuscript Reviewers"
    "Do you have any real or apparent conflicts of interest? ​
    Is the work too close to your own? Sometimes a potential reviewer is presented with a very awkward problem when he/she is asked to review a paper that is very close to his/her own work. As will be discussed below, manuscripts under review are considered confidential documents. By agreeing to review a manuscript, the reviewer assumes an obligation to keep the data in confidence and not to use it for his/her own benefit. This can raise a problem when a reviewer receives a request to review a paper which reports experiments that overlap with studies that the reviewer is already performing, planning to perform, or preparing for publication.

    The potential reviewer should not review this paper: doing so presents a “no-win” situation even if the reviewer acts with the utmost integrity. If the paper is good and the reviewer were to review it rapidly and recommend acceptance, he/she might well compromise his/her ability to publish his/her own work – this knowledge creates an immediate, significant conflict of interest. On the other hand, if the paper proves to be flawed and the reviewer (with all integrity) were to recommend extensive revisions or rejection, the perception of misconduct could arise in the editor’s mind when the reviewer’s own studies were submitted or published.

    The reviewer is therefore in an unfortunate situation in which even totally ethical actions could produce unpleasant outcomes, and should take immediate steps to minimize the potential for adverse effects. The potential reviewer should contact the editor immediately, inform the editor of the problem, and decline to review the paper. If at all possible, this should be done when the reviewer has seen only the title and abstract; the reviewer should make every effort to ensure that he/she does not receive the complete paper. The procedures now being used for electronic reviews are helpful in this regard – but there is still a possibility that a colleague or an editor will give a potential reviewer a complete manuscript along with a request for a review, in which case an immediate discussion of the problem and return of the manuscript are essential." (Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office of Research Integrity (ORI) "Ethics of Peer Review: A Guide for Manuscript Reviewers" Sara Rockwell, Ph.D. Departments of Therapeutic Radiology and Pharmacology, and Office of Scientific Affairs, Yale University School of Medicine, PO Box 208040, New Haven, CT 06510-8040. p. 5)

  • "COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers - English"
    "​Confidentiality: Respect the confidentiality of the peer review process and refrain from using information obtained during the peer review process for your own or another’s advantage, or to disadvantage or discredit others (e.g. see COPE Case 14-06: Possible breach of reviewer confidentiality). Do not involve anyone else in the review of a manuscript (including early career researchers you are mentoring), without first obtaining permission from the journal (e.g. see COPE Case 11-29: Reviewer asks trainee to review manuscript). The names of any individuals who have helped with the review should be included so that they are associated with the manuscript in the journal’s records and can also receive due recognition for their efforts." (Source: COPE Council. Ethical guidelines for peer reviewers. September 2017 Version 2 Published September 2017. www.publicationethics.org)

    "How do you handle the paper?
    Manuscripts under review are confidential documents, and should be treated as such. They contain unpublished data and ideas that must be kept confidential. You cannot share the paper or its contents with your colleagues. Manuscripts that you are reviewing should be kept in a secure place, where they will not be readily accessible to the curious or unscrupulous. Moreover, you cannot use the information in the paper in your own research or cite it in your own publications. This can raise serious ethical issues if the work provides insights or data that could benefit your own thinking and studies. An especially difficult situation is that in which you receive a manuscript which has serious flaws, causing that you recommend rejection or major revisions that will require time and new experiments to address, but also contains an element that you find exciting and would like to explore yourself. Such cases can become ethical quagmires." (Source: ibid.)

  • "Peer-Review Fraud — Hacking the Scientific Publication Process"
    "    How is it possible to fake peer review? Moon, who studies medicinal plants, had set up a simple procedure. He gave journals recommendations for peer reviewers for his manuscripts, providing them with names and e-mail addresses. But these addresses were ones he created, so the requests to review went directly to him or his colleagues. Not surprisingly, the editor would be sent favorable reviews — sometimes within hours after the reviewing requests had been sent out. The fallout from Moon's confession: 28 articles in various journals published by Informa were retracted, and one editor resigned. 3
    (...)
    The problem is the perverse incentive systems in scientific publishing. As long as authors are (mostly) rewarded for publishing many articles and editors are (mostly) rewarded for publishing them rapidly, new ways of gaming the traditional publication models will be invented more quickly than new control measures can be put in place." (Source: "Peer-Review Fraud — Hacking the Scientific Publication Process" Charlotte J. Haug, M.D., Ph.D.  The New England Journal of Medicine 2015; 373:2393-2395. December 17, 2015. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMp1512330)
  • "When reviewing goes wrong: the ugly side of peer review"
    ​"The research community has become hyper competitive, which stems in large part from the intense pressure on publication and the associated impact on evaluation and progression. In some countries, this pressure comes from institutes or funding agencies; in others directly from government. Another significant contributor to the issue is the increasing difficulty of finding suitable reviewers with the requisite expertise, time and willingness." (Source: "When reviewing goes wrong: the ugly side of peer review" Christopher Tancock. Elsevier Connect, Editors' Update March 23, 2018)
    ​
  • "Uncovering new peer review problems – this time at The BMJ"
    ‘Multiple breakdowns in the process’
    “This looks really bad,” said Melissa S. Anderson, PhD, a professor of higher education at the University of Minnesota who previously co-chaired the World Conference on Research Integrity. “Why would they want to risk being accused of conflict of interest when [the BMJ peer review process] is open? That amazes me. I don’t know why you’d do that.”
    Anderson said that even if these reviewers provided an accurate assessment of the science, the fact that they are close collaborators of the authors casts significant doubt on their conclusions. “If it looks bad, it’s a conflict of interest,” she said. “That actually is becoming the standard for how you determine if something is a conflict of interest. Even the appearance of a conflict constitutes an actual conflict.”
    (Source: Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). "Uncovering new peer review problems – this time at The BMJ"

  • "COPE statement on inappropriate manipulation of peer review processes"
    "The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)  has become aware of systematic, inappropriate attempts to manipulate the peer review processes of several journals across different publishers. These manipulations appear to have been orchestrated by a number of third party agencies offering services to authors.  This statement is issued on behalf of COPE after consultation with a variety of publishers to underscore the seriousness with which we take these issues and our determination to address them.
    While there are a number of well-established reputable agencies offering manuscript-preparation services to authors, investigations at several journals suggests that some agencies are selling services, ranging from authorship of pre-written manuscripts to providing fabricated contact details for peer reviewers during the submission process and then supplying reviews from these fabricated addresses.  Some of these peer reviewer accounts have the names of seemingly real researchers but with email addresses that differ from those from their institutions or associated with their previous publications, others appear to be completely fictitious." (Source:     "COPE statement on inappropriate manipulation of peer review processes" 19/12/2014)

  • "Publishing: The peer-review scam"
    "What all these cases had in common was that researchers exploited vulnerabilities in the publishers' computerized systems to dupe editors into accepting manuscripts, often by doing their own reviews. The cases involved publishing behemoths Elsevier, Springer, Taylor & Francis, SAGE and Wiley, as well as Informa, and they exploited security flaws that — in at least one of the systems — could make researchers vulnerable to even more serious identity theft. “For a piece of software that's used by hundreds of thousands of academics worldwide, it really is appalling,” says Mark Dingemanse, a linguist at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen, the Netherlands, who has used some of these programs to publish and review papers.
    (...)
    In what Lindsay calls the worst case that he has seen, an author suggested a reviewer who shared her first name but not her surname. Some investigation revealed that the surname was the author's maiden name — she was recommending that she review her own paper. “I don't think she is going to submit anything to us again,” says Lindsay." (Source: "Publishing: The peer-review scam" Cat Ferguson, Adam Marcus& Ivan Oransky. Nature 515, 480–482 (27 November 2014) doi:10.1038/515480a)

  • "Correction to climate change study highlights flaws in peer-review process"
    "Imperfect System
    "Ivan Oransky, a health journalism professor at New York University and co-founder of Retraction Watch, a website that tracks errors in science journals, believes that, while the error was unfortunate for the authors, part of the issue lies in the amount of faith the public — and journalists — put in the peer-review process.
    Science is done by human beings," said Oransky. "When we start to think about peer review as a magical process that, somehow you put in something that may have some issues, but somehow the peer reviewers find all the problems, and then we should trust everything that's peer reviewed, we're setting ourselves up for failure.
    He still believes in the process, but says it's not the catch-all that scientists and journalists believe it is.
    We need to stop thinking… that just because something is peer-reviewed means that it's a Good Housekeeping seal of approval," Oransky said." (Source: "Correction to climate change study highlights flaws in peer-review process" Nicole Mortillaro, CBC News · Posted: Nov 16, 2018 4:00 AM ET, Last Updated: November 16)​​

  • "Increasing Transparency Around Peer Review and Research"
    "Obstetrics & Gynecology employs a single-blind peer-review process, in which the authors do not know the identity of the reviewers unless the reviewer voluntarily self-identifies. We will continue to do so. However, starting in July 2018 and phased in over several months, we will lift the curtain of the peer-review process for accepted articles and implement what is termed “transparent peer review.” Starting with this month's issue, we will publish the dates an article is submitted, revised, and accepted, increasing transparency. Then, later this year, readers will start to see the peer reviewers' and editor's comments to the author, along with the authors' responses to these comments, published as supplemental digital content to the online version of each peer-reviewed article. Authors can opt out of having their responses to these comments published if they wish to do so. Reviewer invitations will inform them that their anonymous reviews will be published online; invited reviewers can opt out by declining the invitation. The iterative communication from the editor to the authors (and their responses if they opt in) will also be published so that interested readers can see the process of moving a manuscript from submission to publication. Even if the authors decline to have their responses published, the reviewer and editor comments will be posted online." (Source: Editorial: "Increasing Transparency Around Peer Review and Research" Chescheir, Nancy C., MD. Obstetrics & Gynecology: July 2018 - Volume 132 - Issue 1 - p 1–2. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000002712.)

  • "The changing forms and expectations of peer review"
    "Background
    Quality and integrity in science
    Recently, there has been heated debate on the quality, credibility and integrity of scientific literature. Due to a perceived increase in scientific fraud and irreproducible research, some claim the publication system, or even science in general, to be in crisis [9, 25]. This rising concern has become obvious in the media, in policy initiatives, as well as in scientific literature. Concerned scientists as well as policymakers increasingly express their worry about data manipulation, plagiarism, or questionable research practices that affect the functioning of science [56].
    (...)
    We will demonstrate that these new expectations are not always entirely compatible with one another and hence lead to tensions in the current academic debate about what peer review can and should do. Underlying this debate, we note a growing expectation that the scientific literature will serve as a database of established knowledge, rather than as a collection of research reports, pointing to more fundamental disagreement about the nature of scientific knowledge. At least some of the expectations of peer review are not just about the practicalities of ‘how to make it work better’; many also expect the process to address the functions of the publication system and even what it means to publish an account of a research project." (Source: "The changing forms and expectations of peer review" S. P. J. M. ( Serge) Horbach and W. ( Willem) Halffman. Research Integrity and Peer Review (2018) 3:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41073-018-0051-5. View/Download pdf here.)
Plagiarism
 "Plagiarism by Academics: More Complex than it Seems"
"Definition
Plagiarism resembles pornography, at least to the extent that people believe that they know it when they see it, but seldom take the trouble to construct, or to seek out a definition of the term. Dictionary entries include the following:
  • To take and use another person's (thoughts, writings, inventions ...) as one's own (Oxford);
  • To steal or purloin from the writings of another; to appropriate without due acknowledgement (the ideas or expressions of another) (Merriam-Webster);
  • To appropriate or imitate another's ideas and manner of expressing them, as in art, literature, etc., to be passed off as one's own (Macquarie);
  • To copy and pass off (the expression of ideas or words of another) as one's own; to use (another's work) without crediting the source (Merriam-Webster Dictionary of Law).
The Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 edition identifies its etymology as being the Latin plagiarius - a kidnapper, stealer, or abductor of a slave or child, and the Oxford traces it further back to the Greek plagion- `a kidnapping.' On the other hand, its coinage appears to be relatively recent: the first occurrence identified in the Oxford is in 1621. It appears to have been in common usage by the mid-eighteenth century." (Source: "Plagiarism by Academics: More Complex than it Seems" Roger Clarke. Journal of the Association for Information Systems Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 91-121/February 2006; HTML Version website)

"Analyzing the definitions and usage, I identify several elements of the notion of plagiarism:
  1. publication: the presentation of another person's material, work, or idea. A pre-condition for plagiarism is that the new work is made available to others; personal notes are not at issue;
  2. content: the presentation of another person's material, work, or idea. A pre-condition for plagiarism is that some part of the new work is derived from someone else's prior or contemporaneous work;
  3. appropriation: the presentation of another person's material, work, or idea as one's own. A pre-condition for plagiarism is that the claim of originality of contribution is either explicit or implied by the manner of presentation; or the presentation may be such that the reader is reasonably likely to infer the work to be an original contribution; and
  4. lack of credit given: the presentation of another person's material, work, or idea as his or her own, without appropriate attribution. A pre-condition for plagiarism is that the reader is not made aware of the identity of the originator, nor of the location of the original contribution.
The notion of a 'deliberate attempt to deceive' has been intentionally omitted from the list, on pragmatic grounds. If it were included, it would necessitate inferring the state of mind of the alleged plagiarizer. Effective administrative and legal decision-making is only possible if the criteria are expressed in terms of observable phenomena. However, the question of intent is revisited later in this paper as a relevant factor in assessing the degree of seriousness of an act of plagiarism. (Source: "Plagiarism by Academics: More Complex than it Seems" Roger Clarke. Journal of the Association for Information Systems Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 91-121/February 2006; HTML Version website)

Plagiarism (continued)
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office of Research Integrity (ORI)
  • ORI Policy on Plagiarism
    "As a general working definition, ORI considers plagiarism to include both the theft or misappropriation of intellectual property and the substantial unattributed textual copying of another's work. It does not include authorship or credit disputes.
    The theft or misappropriation of intellectual property includes the unauthorized use of ideas or unique methods obtained by a privileged communication, such as a grant or manuscript review." (Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office of Research Integrity (ORI): "ORI Policy on Plagiarism")
    ​
  • "Plagiarism  Taking over the ideas, methods, or written words of another, without acknowledgment and with the intention that they be taken as the work of the deceiver.  American Association of University Professors (September/October,1989)
    As the above quotation shows, plagiarism has been traditionally defined as the taking of words, images, processes, structure and design elements, ideas, etc. of others and presenting them as one’s own. It is often associated with phrases such as kidnapping of words, kidnapping of ideas, fraud, and literary theft. Plagiarism can manifest itself in a variety of ways and is not just confined to student papers or published articles or books. For example, consider a scientist who makes a presentation at a conference and discusses at length an idea or concept that had already been proposed by someone else yet not considered common knowledge. During his presentation, he fails to fully acknowledge the specific source of the idea and, consequently, misleads the audience into believing that he was the originator of that idea. This, too, may constitute an instance of plagiarism. The fact is that plagiarism manifests itself in a variety of situations and the following examples are just a small sample of the many ways in which it occurs and of the types of consequences that can follow as a result." (Source:  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office of Research Integrity (ORI): "Avoiding Plagiarism, Self-plagiarism, and Other Questionable Writing Practices: A Guide to Ethical Writing" "This guide was written by Miguel Roig, PhD, from St. Johns University with funding from ORI. This module was originally created in 2003 and revised in 2006 and 2015." View/Download pdf here)

  • "Plagiarism of ideas  Appropriating someone else’s idea (e.g., an explanation, a theory, a conclusion, a hypothesis, a metaphor) in whole or in part, or with superficial modifications without giving credit to its originator." (Source: ibid.)

  • Acknowledging the Source of Our Ideas
    "The confidential peer review process is thought to be a common source of plagiarism. Consider the scenario where the offender is a journal or conference referee, or a member of a review panel for a funding agency. He reads a paper or a grant proposal describing a promising new methodology in an area of research directly related to his own work. The grant fails to get funded based perhaps on his negative evaluation of the protocol. He then goes back to his lab and prepares a grant proposal using the methodology stolen from the proposal that he refereed earlier and submits his proposal to a different granting agency. Cases similar to the above scenario have been documented in the research misconduct literature (see Price, 2006)
    Most of us would deem the behavior depicted in the above scenario as downright despicable. Unfortunately, similar situations have occurred. In fact, elements of the above scenario are based on actual cases of scientific misconduct investigated by ORI. The notion that the peer review context appears to be sufficiently susceptible to the appropriation of ideas was likely the impetus behind the 1999 Federal Office of Science and Technology Policy’s expansion of their definition of plagiarism, which states:
    • “Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit, including those obtained through confidential review of others’ research proposals and manuscripts. (Office of Science and Technology Policy, 1999)." (Source: ibid.)
  • 28 Guidelines at a Glance on Avoiding Plagiarism
    The 28 guidelines (with URL links) listed below are taken from "Avoiding plagiarism, self-plagiarism, and other questionable writing practices: A guide to ethical writing" by Miguel Roig, as published on the website of  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office of Research Integrity (ORI).
    • Guideline 1: An ethical writer ALWAYS acknowledges the contributions of others to his/her work.
    • Guideline 2: Any verbatim text taken from another source must be enclosed in quotation marks and be accompanied by a citation to indicate its origin.
    • Guideline 3: When we summarize others’ work, we use our own words to condense and convey others’ contributions in a shorter version of the original.
    • Guideline 4: When paraphrasing others’ work, not only must we use our own words, but we must also use our own syntactical structure. 
    • Guideline 5: Whether we are paraphrasing or summarizing we must always identify the source of our information.
    • Guideline 6: When paraphrasing and/or summarizing others’ work we must ensure that we are reproducing the exact meaning of the other author’s ideas or facts and that we are doing so using our own words and sentence structure.
    • Guideline 7: In order to be able to make the types of substantial modifications to the original text that result in a proper paraphrase, one must have a thorough command of the language and a good understanding of the ideas and terminology being used.
    • Guideline 8: When in doubt as to whether a concept or fact is common knowledge, provide a citation.
    • Guideline 9: Authors of complex studies should heed the advice previously put forth by Angell & Relman (1989). If the results of a single complex study are best presented as a ‘cohesive’ single whole, they should not be partitioned into individual papers. Furthermore, if there is any doubt as to whether a paper submitted for publication represents fragmented data, authors should enclose other papers (published or unpublished) that might be part of the paper under consideration (Kassirer & Angell, 1995).
    • Guideline 10: Authors who submit a manuscript for publication containing previously disseminated data, reviews, conclusions, etc., must clearly indicate to the editors and readers the nature of the previous dissemination. The provenance of data must never be in doubt.
    • Guideline 11: While there are some situations where text recycling is an acceptable practice, it may not be so in other situations.  Authors are urged to adhere to the spirit of ethical writing and avoid reusing their own previously published text, unless it is done in a manner that alerts readers about the reuse or one that is consistent with standard scholarly conventions (e.g., by using of quotations and proper paraphrasing).
    • Guideline 12: In the domain of conferences and similar audio-visual presentations of their work, authors should practice the same principles of transparency with their audiences. 
    • Guideline 13: In addition to standard practices of ethical scholarship, authors must be mindful of readers’ expectations, applicable issues related to intellectual content rights (i.e., copyright), and, especially, the need to always be transparent in our work when reusing material across the various dissemination domains.
    • Guideline 14: Because some instances of plagiarism, self- plagiarism, and even some writing practices that might otherwise be acceptable (e.g., extensive paraphrasing or quoting of key elements of a book) can constitute copyright infringement, authors are strongly encouraged to become familiar with basic elements of copyright law.
    • Guideline 15: Authors are strongly urged to double-check their citations.  Specifically, authors should always ensure that each reference notation appearing in the body of the manuscript corresponds to the correct citation listed in the reference section and vice versa and that each source listed in the reference section has been cited at some point in the manuscript. In addition, authors should also ensure that all elements of a citation (e.g., spelling of authors’ names, volume number of journal, pagination) are derived directly from the original paper, rather than from a citation that appears on a secondary source. Finally, when appropriate, authors should ensure that credit is given to those authors who first reported the phenomenon being studied.
    • Guideline 16: The references used in a paper should only be those that are directly related to its contents. The intentional inclusion of references of questionable relevance for purposes such as manipulating a journal’s or a paper’s impact factor or a paper’s chances of acceptance, is an unacceptable practice.
    • Guideline 17: Always cite the actual work that is consulted.  When the published paper cannot be obtained, cite the specific version of the material being used whether it is conference presentation, abstract, or an unpublished manuscript. Ensure that the cited work has not been subsequently corrected or retracted.
    • Guideline 18: Generally, when describing others’ work, do not cite an original paper if you are only relying on a secondary summary of that paper. Doing so is a deceptive practice, reflects poor scholarly standards, and can lead to a flawed description of the work described.
    • Guideline 19: If an author must rely on a secondary source (e.g., textbook) to describe the contents of a primary source (e.g., an empirical journal article), s/he should consult writing manuals used in her discipline to follow the proper convention to do so. Above all, always indicate to the reader the actual source of the information being reported.
    • Guideline 20: When borrowing heavily from a source, authors should always craft their writing in a way that makes clear to readers which ideas/data are their own and which are derived from sources being consulted.
    • Guideline 21: When appropriate, authors have an ethical responsibility to report evidence that runs contrary to their point of view. In addition, evidence that we use in support of our position must be methodologically sound. When citing supporting studies that suffer from methodological, statistical, or other types of shortcomings, such flaws must be pointed out to the reader.
    • Guideline 22: Authors have an ethical obligation to report all aspects of the study that may impact the replicability of their research by independent observers.
    • Guideline 23: Researchers have an ethical responsibility to report the results of their studies according to their a priori plans. Any post hoc manipulations that may alter the results initially obtained, such as the elimination of outliers or the use of alternative statistical techniques, must be clearly described along with an acceptable rationale for using such techniques.
    • Guideline 24: Authorship determination should be discussed prior to commencing research collaboration and should be based on established guidelines, such as those of the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors.
    • Guideline 25: Only those individuals who have made substantive contributions to a project merit authorship in a paper.
    • Guideline 26: Faculty-student collaborations should follow the same criteria to establish authorship. Mentors must exercise great care to neither award authorship to students whose contributions do not merit it, nor to deny authorship and due credit to the work of students.
    • Guideline 27: Academic or professional ghost authorship in the sciences is ethically unacceptable
    • Guideline 28: Authors must become aware of possible conflicts of interest in their own research and to make every effort to disclose those situations (e.g., stock ownership, consulting agreements to the sponsoring organization) that may pose actual or potential conflicts of interest."
      (Source:  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office of Research Integrity (ORI): "Avoiding Plagiarism, Self-plagiarism, and Other Questionable Writing Practices: A Guide to Ethical Writing" "This guide was written by Miguel Roig, PhD, from St. Johns University with funding from ORI. This module was originally created in 2003 and revised in 2006 and 2015." View/Download pdf here.)
Plagiarism (continued)
Definitions
  • "Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition. Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations for examinations, intentional or reckless plagiarism is a disciplinary offence." (Source: University of Oxford Website: https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/plagiarism)
  • "The action or practice of taking someone else's work, idea, etc., and passing it off as one's own; literary theft." The verb “to plagiarize” is defined as: “To take and use as one's own (the thoughts, writings, or inventions of another person);”  “To copy (literary work or ideas) improperly or without acknowledgement; (occas.) to pass off as one's own the thoughts or work of (another)” (Source: Oxford English Dictionary, 2011)
  • "taking over the ideas, methods, or written words of another, without acknowledgment and with the intention that they be taken as the work of the deceiver." (Source: American Association of University Professors (September/October, 1989)).
  • "the act of using another person's words or ideas without giving credit to that person : the act of plagiarizing something.” (Source: Merriam-Webster: plagiarism)
  • "plagiarism– the use of published or unpublished material without due acknowledgment of the primary author– constitutes research misconduct in the same way as does the fabrication and/or the falsification of data." (Source:"Fraud and deceit in medical research," Umran Sarwar and Marios Nicolaou, J Res Med Sci. 2012 Nov; 17(11): 1077–1081. PMCID: PMC3702092)

Plagiarism (continued)
  • Council of Science Editors (CSE)
    "White Paper on Publication Ethics"
    "3.1.3 Piracy and Plagiarism
    Piracy is defined as the unauthorized reproduction or use of ideas, data, or methods from others without adequate permission or acknowledgment. Again, deceit plays a central role in this form of misconduct. The intent of the perpetrator is the untruthful portrayal of the ideas or methods as his or her own. 2

    Plagiarism is a form of piracy that involves the unauthorized use or close imitation of the language (figures images or tables) and thoughts of others and the representation of them as one’s own original work without permission or acknowledgment by the author of the source of these materials. Plagiarism generally involves the use of materials from others, but can apply to researchers’ duplication of their own previously published reports without acknowledgment (this is sometimes called self-plagiarism or duplicate publication).2 Sample correspondence is available on the CSE website.     5" (Source: "White Paper on Publication Ethics" Copyright © 2018 Council of Science Editors. (Download a PDF of the entire White Paper))

Plagiarism (continued)
"Plagiarism: Why is it such a big issue for medical writers?"
  • "Plagiarism of ideas
    Even if an author does not copy any words and phrases from the original article, if he simply uses the same idea, thought, or invention and presents it as his own without proper acknowledgment, the same may amount to plagiarism. This kind of plagiarism is difficult to detect[10] but once detected, it is as serious an offence.
    When can plagiarism of an idea occur? Here are a few examples that come to mind. It is possible that after a particular article has been rejected by a board of reviewers, one of the reviewers may “kidnap” the idea, write a fresh article, and get it published in a different journal under his name. This is plagiarism of idea.
    (...)
    Plagiarism of ideas is also common during seminar and conference presentations. The presenters often pick up ideas from various sources such as text books, research journals, conference proceedings, etc., and compile a presentation on a particular topic and present it as their own. As long as all sources are aptly acknowledged in the presentation, it is fair play. However, any idea or thought that is not adequately attributed to its rightful owner, whether intentionally or unintentionally amounts to plagiarism of ideas."  (Source: "Plagiarism: Why is it such a big issue for medical writers?" Natasha Das and Monica Panjabi. Perspect Clin Res. 2011 Apr-Jun; 2(2): 67–71. doi:  [10.4103/2229-3485.80370])

"Authorship: The Coin of the Realm, The Source of Complaints"
  • "CREDIT for one's research, ultimately through authorship, is extremely important for a successful scientific career. It affects future research funding, promotions, and recruitment opportunities. If allocation of credit is poorly done, future research resources may in turn be misallocated."  (Source:  "Authorship: The Coin of the Realm, The Source of Complaints" Linda J. Wilcox, EdM, CAS. JAMA. 1998;280(3):216-217. doi:10.1001/jama.280.3.216)

Plagiarism (continued)
NORWEGIAN MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
Consultation on revision of the Research Ethics Act (Høring om revisjon av forskningsetikkloven)
"Consultation paper – Research Ethics in Norway" (p. 36)
  • "Plagiarism in a research ethics context means using others' texts, figures, tables, results, ideas, methods, processes and similar without indicating this and without listing the source. The most common definition of plagiarism is publishing others' work/texts as one's own, and thereby mislead the reader as to who wrote the text. In a research ethics context, it has been common to refer to Item 28 of the NESH Guidelines, which defines plagiarism as follows:
    • "Plagiarism is, in a research ethics context, stealing content from other authors' and researchers' work and publishing it as one's own. Researchers who use others' ideas or quote from publications or research materials, must list their sources. The most severe form of plagiarism is pure copying. However, plagiarism can also come in other, more refined forms, and can apply for limited results, ideas, hypotheses, terms, theories, interpretations, design, etc. Referring to another work at an early point in one's own text, and then making extensive use of it without further references, is also plagiarism."

Plagiarism (continued)
​Norway's Research Ethics Act
  • Section 8. Statements in cases of fraud
    "Scientific dishonesty means falsification, fabrication, plagiarism and other serious violations of recognized research ethical norms committed intentionally or through gross negligence in planning, conducting or reporting research." (Source: Forskningsetikkloven (Research Ethics Act); English Translation: Research Ethics Act

  • "The Act states that there shall be research ethics committees covering all disciplines (§ 9). The national committees are The National Committee for Medical and Health Research Ethics (NEM); The National Committee for Research Ethics in Science and Technology (NENT); and The National Committee for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences and the Humanities (NESH); as well as the The National Commission for the Investigation of Research Misconduct (GRU)." (Source: "The Act on ethics and integrity in research" Text: The Norwegian National Committees for Research Ethics. Last updated: Monday, February 12, 2018)

  • "Scientific Integrity
    "The researcher is responsible for respecting the research results of others and to conduct good scientific practice. The researcher shall not conceal, distort or falsify, whether in the planning, implementation or reporting of the research. Plagiarism involves representing other people's ideas or research as one's own."
    "Vitenskapelig redelighet
    Forskeren har ansvar for å respektere andres forskningsresultater og å utøve god vitenskapelig praksis. Forskeren skal ikke skjule, fordreie eller forfalske noe, enten det er i planleggingen, gjennomføringen eller rapporteringen av forskningen. Å plagiere innebærer å framstille andres ideer eller forskning som sitt eget."
    (Source: "Research ethical guidelines for natural sciences and technology" ("Forskningsetiske retningslinjer for naturvitenskap og teknologi") NENT • Den nasjonale forskningsetiske komité for naturvitenskap og teknologi. Oslo, april 2016  Øyvind Mikkelsen, Komitéleder. 2. utgave – april 2016. ISBN: 978-82-7682-073-7)

  • "The extent of fraudulent research (...)
    In Finland and Norway, cases of plagiarism are clearly dominant in the complaints about possible dishonesty and even more dominant in terms of the conclusion of scientific dishonesty."
    "Omfanget av uredelig forskning (...)
    I Finland og Norge er saker om plagiering klart dominerende blant klagene om mulig uredelighet og enda mer dominerende når det gjelder konklusjon om vitenskapelig uredelighet."
    (Source: "Cheating and plagiarism" "Fusk og plagiering" Research Ethics Library - FBIB (Forskningsetisk bibliotek - FBIB) Text: Torkild Vinther. Last updated: January 11, 2016)

  • Plagiarism (...)
    "Among the Norwegian irregularities that the Examination Committee has knowledge of, either from its own treatment or through information from institutions, a significant number have been about plagiarism. Not least, it is important to note that virtually all issues the last approx. 8 years where it has been concluded with a form of scientific dishonesty, it has been primarily about plagiarism. There is therefore a good reason to focus on this..."
    "Plagiering (...)
    Blant de norske uredelighetssaker som Granskingsutvalget har kjennskap til, enten fra egen behandling eller via orientering fra institusjoner, har riktig mange vedrørt plagiering. Ikke minst er det viktig å bemerke at stort sett alle saker de siste ca. 8 år hvor det er konkludert med en form for vitenskapelig uredelighet primært har dreiet seg om plagiering. Det er altså god grunn til å sette fokus på dette..." (Source: ibid.)

Plagiarism (continued)
"Dear peer reviewer, you stole my paper: An author’s worst nightmare"
  • "Deeply disturbing," "heinous intellectual theft," erosion of the "public’s trust in medical research:" These are just a few -words used to describe a rare type of plagiarism reported in this week’s Annals of Internal Medicine."

    "Although we’ve only documented a few cases where peer reviewers steal material from manuscripts and pass them off as their own, it does happen, and it’s a fear of many authors. What we’ve never seen is a plagiarized author publish a letter to the reviewer who stole his work. But after Michael Dansinger of Tufts Medical Center realized a paper he’d submitted to Annals of Internal Medicine that had been rejected was republished, and the journal recognized one of the reviewers among the list of co-authors, it published a letter from Dansinger to the reviewer, along with an editorial explaining what happened.
    The letter and editorial identify the paper containing the stolen material — now retracted — but don’t name the reviewer responsible. Still, the articles are deeply personal. As Dansinger writes in “Dear Plagiarist: A Letter to a Peer Reviewer Who Stole and Published Our Manuscript as His Own,” the reviewer took much more than just a manuscript:
    It took 5 years from conceptualization of the study to publication of the primary analysis (1). This study was my fellowship project and required a lot of work. It took effort to find the right research team, design the study, raise the funds, get approvals, recruit and create materials for study participants, run the diet classes, conduct the study visits, compile and analyze the study data, and write the initial report. The work was funded by the U.S. government and my academic institution. The secondary analysis that you reviewed for Annals used specialized methods that took my colleagues many years to develop and validate. In all, this body of research represents at least 4000 hours of work."

    "In “Scientific Misconduct Hurts,” Annals of Internal Medicine. Editor-in-Chief Christine Laine identifies the “several layers of bold misconduct” that took place..." (Source: "Dear peer reviewer, you stole my paper: An author’s worst nightmare" Alison McCook. Retraction Watch December 12, 2016)

    Also see: "Caught Our Notice: 4th retraction for peer reviewer who stole manuscript" (Source: Retraction Watch)

"Peer reviewer stole article and published it as his own"
  • "A peer reviewer appointed by the Annals of Internal Medicine stole research submitted by a team from Tufts University, Boston, that was rejected by the Annals and published it six months later in a different journal under his own name.
    The theft came to light when the original lead author, the endocrinologist Michael Dansinger of Tufts, later chanced upon his plagiarized work in EXCLI Journal while searching the internet and contacted the corresponding author, who apologized for the plagiarism and had the article retracted. 1
    (...)
    ​Dansinger contacted the corresponding author, Carmine Finelli, after finding the plagiarism online. Finelli admitted the plagiarism, did not offer an explanation, and said that he would retract the EXCLI Journal article, which he did.
    The retraction notice read, “As corresponding author I ask for retraction of our article Finelli et al (2016) with the consent of all co-authors, because of unauthorized reproduction of confidential content of another manuscript." (Source: "Peer reviewer stole article and published it as his own" Owen Dyer. BMJ  2016; 355:i6768 doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i6768 (Published 19 December 2016)

Plagiarism (continued)
"knowingly, intentionally, or recklessly [appropriated] the ideas, processes, results or words” 
"Prominent US critic of cancer screening committed plagiarism, investigation finds"
  • "A well known scholar in US healthcare policy plagiarised his colleague at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, in a widely cited critique of breast cancer screening, an internal investigation by the college has found.

    H Gilbert Welch “engaged in research misconduct, namely, plagiarism,” the investigation committee found, in writing a paper published in the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM). 1 The article, which questioned the survival benefits of breast cancer screening, attracted widespread media attention and was cited by 94 other articles, making it one of the top 1% of influential research articles of 2016.

    The committee found that Welch, a professor at the Geisel School of Medicine and the Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice, had “knowingly, intentionally, or recklessly [appropriated] the ideas, processes, results or words” of Dartmouth associate professor Samir Soneji and his colleague Hiram Beltrán-Sánchez, an associate professor at the University of California, Los Angeles."     (Source: "Prominent US critic of cancer screening committed plagiarism, investigation finds" Owen Dyer. BMJ 2018;362:k3616 doi: 10.1136/bmj.k3616 Published 22 August 2018) [Also see:  Prominent health policy researcher resigns from Dartmouth over plagiarism dispute]

Plagiarism (continued)
"Background: Plagiarism is more than just copying someone else's text"
"Bakgrunn: Plagiat er mer enn bare å kopiere en annens tekst"
  • "You do not have to write the text to commit ethical theft. - The use of other people's ideas, hypotheses, interpretations, illustrations or results is equally wrong, according to researchers.​"
    "Du trenger ikke å skrive av teksten for begå forskningsetisk tyveri. – Bruk av andres idéer, hypoteser, tolkninger, illustrasjoner eller resultater er like galt, ifølge forsker."

    Basic ethical norms
    Grunnleggende etiske normer​
    "A professional book or a scientific article is the spiritual product of the researcher, which he owns and to which he has copyright.
    "En fagbok eller en vitenskapelig artikkel er forskerens åndelige produkt, som vedkommende eier og har opphavsrett til.

    The ideas and results that the book or article explains may be used by others, but the rules of the game are clear: everyone who borrows these ideas and results must state where it comes from. That is, give a clear and clear source reference. Otherwise, the document is considered unlawful use after the research ethics.
    Ideene og resultatene som boken eller artikkelen redegjør for, kan godt brukes av andre, men spillereglene er klare: alle som låner disse ideene og resultatene, må oppgi hvor det kommer fra. Det vil si gi en klar og tydelig kildehenvisning.  Ellers betraktes handlingen som urettmessig bruk etter forskningsetikken.

    And just like in literature or music, unfair use of others' achievements in research constitutes plagiarism.
    Og akkurat som i litteraturen eller musikken, omtales urettmessig bruk av andres prestasjoner i forskningssammenheng som plagiat.

    In Norway, research ethics committees have been established which have developed ethical guidelines for various disciplines. According to their definition, plagiarism in the research ethical sense is "taking something from others and presenting it as their own without a good reference to the sources".
    I Norge er det etablert forskningsetiske komitéer som har utarbeidet etiske retningslinjer for ulike fagområder. Ifølge deres definisjon er plagiat i forskningsetisk forstand «å ta noe fra andre og presentere det som sitt eget uten god henvisning til kildene».

    "The most obvious plagiarism in the world of research is copying," says Irgens-Jensen. 
     Det mest åpenbare plagiat i forskningens verden er avskrift, forteller Irgens-Jensen.

    "It is obviously easy to discover and is completely reprehensible. It will also be in violation of the intellectual property laws. Nevertheless, a number of examples have been identified where texts were written without reference recently. A case that wakened international attention was a major plagiarism in the legal doctorate of the then German defense minister Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg. He was deprived of his PhD in 2011 and had to resign from his position."
    – Det er naturligvis lett å oppdage og er helt forkastelig. Det vil også være i strid med åndsverkloven. Likevel er det blitt identifisert en rekke eksempler hvor det ble skrevet av tekster uten henvisning i den senere tid. En sak som vekket internasjonal oppsikt, var en omfattende plagiering i den juridiske doktorgraden til den daværende tyske forsvarsministeren Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg. Han ble fratatt sin doktorgrad i 2011 og måtte fratre sin stilling."

    What falls under the radar of the law
    Det som faller under jussens radar.
    "Plagiarism, however, is not always obvious. In addition to concrete and robust offenses - such as the obvious transcript, as mentioned above - there are other types of "thefts" that are considerably more difficult to detect.
    Plagiat er imidlertid ikke alltid innlysende. Utover konkret og håndfast lovbrudd – som for eksempel den åpenbare avskriften, som nevnt over – fins det andre typer «tyverier», som er atskillig vanskeligere å oppdage.

    - For example, where the offender uses his own formulations, yet has retrieved the ideas and research results from others without giving up the source. You do not have to write the text to commit ethical theft. The use of other people's ideas, hypotheses, interpretations, illustrations or results is equally wrong, even though it is more difficult to detect. 
    – Eksempelvis der krenkeren bruker sine egne formuleringer, men likevel har hentet ideene og forskningsresultatene fra andre uten å oppgi kilden. Man trenger ikke å skrive av teksten for begå forskningsetisk tyveri. Bruk av andres idéer, hypoteser, tolkninger, illustrasjoner eller resultater er like galt, selv om det er vanskeligere å oppdage. 

    "It is important to counteract various degrees of dishonesty, from sloppiness to cheating. The honest student, researcher or author has good opportunities to do it in a neat manner. He or she can credit the author and that the text or ideas are taken from an existing work," concludes Irgens-Jensen. 
    – Det er viktig å motarbeide ulike grader av uredelighet, fra sjusk til fusk. Den redelige studenten, forskeren eller forfatteren har gode muligheter til å gjøre det på en ryddig måte. Han eller hun kan kreditere opphavsmannen, og oppi at teksten eller ideene er hentet fra et eksisterende verk, avslutter Irgens-Jensen. (Source:  "Background: Plagiarism is more than just copying someone else's text" "Bakgrunn: Plagiat er mer enn bare å kopiere en annens tekst"Associate Professor Harald Irgens-Jensen, University of Oslo. forskning.no. PUBLISHED December 02. 2017)​

Plagiarism (continued)
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)
​"What to do if you suspect plagiarism" ​
Plagiarism (continued)
"A colleague included plagiarized material in your grant proposal. Are you liable?​"
  • "Picture this scenario: You submit an NIH grant proposal.  Unbeknownst to you, it contains material plagiarized from another scientist.  Are you liable for research misconduct?
    "The answer is clearly yes.” That’s according to a recent decision by Administrative Law Judge Keith Sickendick, of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, in a case involving a former University of Kansas Medical Center professor." (Source: "A colleague included plagiarized material in your grant proposal. Are you liable?​" Richard Goldstein. Retraction Watch. December 3, 2018)

Post-term pregnancy  Post-term pregnancy is defined by the World Health Organization and the International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology as a pregnancy proceeding to and beyond 294 days of gestation.

Precautionary Principle  The Precautionary Principle states if a policy or action has an identified or suspected risk of causing harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of firm, objective evidence and scientific consensus establishing the policy or action is not harmful, the burden of proof to establish the policy or action is not harmful is the responsibility of those who seek to implement the policy or take the action. (Source: paraphrase of: "The Precautionary Principle (with Application to the Genetic Modification of Organisms)" p. 11. Nassim Nicholas Taleb, Rupert Read, Raphael Douady, Joseph Norman, Yaneer Bar-Yam. EXTREME RISK INITIATIVE —NYU SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING WORKING PAPER SERIES. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1410.5787.pdf and the Wikipedia entry: Precautionary principle)
  • "The principle implies that there is a social responsibility to protect the public from exposure to harm, when scientific investigation has found a plausible risk. These protections can be relaxed only if further scientific findings emerge that provide sound evidence that no harm will result."  (Source: Wikipedia entry: Precautionary principle)

  • The Precautionary Principle implies there is a social responsibility to protect women and their fetuses/babies from national medical policies mandating the exclusive use of suboptimal, unilateral ultrasound-based pregnancy dating "methods" implemented within a government-mandated protocol of evidence-obviated medicine; a protocol which is proven to causes sub-optimal obstetric & fetal awareness, which causes suboptimal obstetric & fetal mangement, which causes increased medical risks, critical medical mistakes and grievous medical harms to some of Norway's women and their fetuses/babies.  The precautionary principle and evidence-based medicine require the consideration of all available information to ensure the best possible fetal age and gestational age are established for individual pregnancies.
    ​
  • "9 Researchers must strive to observe the precautionary principle
    Where there is plausible, but uncertain knowledge to the effect that a technological application or a development of a research field may lead to ethically unacceptable consequences for health, society, or the environment, the researchers in the field in question must strive to contribute knowledge that is relevant for observing the precautionary principle. This means that researchers must work together with other relevant parties in observing the precautionary principle. The precautionary principle is defined here as follows: "When human activities may lead to morally unacceptable harm that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish that harm." This principle is important for a large part of science and technology research, and researchers have a shared responsibility for ensuring that evaluations are based on the precautionary principle and contribute to avoiding or diminishing harm." (Source: NENT • The National Committee for Research Ethics in Science and Technology, Guidelines for research ethics in science and technology, "Uncertainty, risk, and the precautionary principle" p. 12. View/Download pdf here.)
  • Primum non nocere, an historical Latin phrase for first, do no harm.

Precautionary Principle (continued)
The Norwegian National Committee for Research Ethics in Science and Technology
"Guidelines for research ethics in science and technology"
"Uncertainty, risk, and the precautionary principle"
  • "8 Researchers must clarify the degree of uncertainty in their research and evaluate the risk associated with the research findings
    Researchers must clarify the degree of certainty and precision that characterises their research results. They must be particularly meticulous about clarifying the relative certainty and validity range of their findings. In addition to presenting knowledge critically and in context, researchers must strive to point out any risk and uncertainty factors that may have a bearing on the interpretation and possible applications of the research findings. Communicating the relative certainty and validity of knowledge is part of a researcher's ethical responsibility and effort to achieve objectivity. Where possible, researchers should also use appropriate methods for demonstrating the uncertainty of the research. Research institutions have an obligation to teach these methods to their employees and students.

    "9 Researchers must strive to observe the precautionary principle
    The precautionary principle is defined here as follows: "When human activities may lead to morally unacceptable harm that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish that harm." This principle is important for a large part of science and technology research, and researchers have a shared responsibility for ensuring that evaluations are based on the precautionary principle and contribute to avoiding or diminishing harm." (Source: "Uncertainty, risk, and the precautionary principle" in "Guidelines for research ethics in science and technology" "Issued by The Norwegian National Committee for Research Ethics in Science and Technology (2016). Text: The Norwegian National Committees for Research Ethics, Last updated: Tuesday, June 28, 2016." View/Download pdf here.)

Prolonged pregnancy  Prolonged pregnancy is a term used in reference to pregnancies which have progressed to or beyond 287 days of gestation, or 41w+0.

Public interest disclosure
  • Public Interest disclosure
    "What should you do if you discover research fraud? This is a major ethical dilemma and society has a real need for fraud in research to be reported. The person raising the alarm risks being labelled a whisteblower. In such situations, should you put yourself first and avoid a potentially awkward situation, or should you take responsibility and report the fraud? Or what should you do if your research identifies a potential risk that some people appear to have been exposed to without knowing it? You know that if the risk is real, it may be best to raise the alarm. On the other hand, you also know that there are weaknesses in your research, and that if your research is presented as sensationalist in the media there will be negative consequences."     (Source: "Public interest disclosure" The Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees, Arnt Inge Vistnes, Last updated: 17. September 2015)
  • Public Interest disclosure in cases of dishonesty
    "In research we strive for 'intersubjectivity', i.e. research results should, to the greatest extent possible, be independent of the person conducting the research. We believe this will yield results that are 'objective'. One prerequisite for achieving this is that the researchers are honest and that they do not knowingly produce fraudulent data, either by fabricating it or by selecting and retaining only data that matches a particular perception. (See Fraud and plagiarism.)" (Source: ibid.)
 
Reproducibility
  • "Reproducibility of Scientific Results"
    "First published Mon Dec 3, 2018
    The terms “reproducibility crisis” and “replication crisis” gained currency in conversation and in print over the last decade (e.g., Pashler & Wagenmakers 2012), as disappointing results emerged from large scale reproducibility projects in various medical, life and behavioural sciences (e.g., Open Science Collaboration, OSC 2015). In 2016, a poll conducted by the journal Nature reported that more than half (52%) of scientists surveyed believed science was facing a “replication crisis” (Baker 2016). More recently, some authors have moved to more positive terms for describing this episode in science; for example, Vazire (2018) refers instead to a “credibility revolution” highlighting the improved methods and open science practices it has motivated."
    (...)
    5. Conclusion
    The subject of reproducibility is associated with a turbulent period in contemporary science. This period has called for a re-evaluation of the values, incentives, practices and structures which underpin scientific inquiry. While the meta-science has painted a bleak picture of reproducibility in some fields, it has also inspired a parallel movement to strengthen the foundations of science. However, more progress is to be made, especially in understanding the solutions to the reproducibility crisis. In this regard, there are fruitful avenues for future research, including a deeper exploration of the role that epistemic and non-epistemic values can or should play in scientific inquiry." (Source: "Reproducibility of Scientific Results" Fidler, Fiona and Wilcox, John. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta, Editor. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-reproducibility/)

Research Integrity
"42 U.S. Code § 289b - Office of Research Integrity"
  • (a)In general
    (1)Establishment of Office
    Not later than 90 days after June 10, 1993, the Secretary shall establish an office to be known as the Office of Research Integrity (referred to in this section as the “Office”), which shall be established as an independent entity in the Department of Health and Human Services." (Source: Cornell University, Cornell Law School, Legal Information Institute (LII) "42 U.S. Code § 289b - Office of Research Integrity")
"Assessing the Integrity of Publicly Funded Research"
  • Ingegrity
    "Integrity is a measure of wholeness or completeness. When applied to professional behavior, it is essentially a measure of the degree to which someone’s (or some institution’s) actions accord with ideal or expected behavior. However, the ideals or expected behaviors for professional conduct are complex, not always well defined, and subject to change or reinterpretation. I have, therefore, adopted a fairly inclusive definition of integrity and assumed that it can be thought of as a measure of the degree to which researchers adhere to the rules or laws, regulations, guidelines, and commonly accepted professional codes and norms of their respective research areas." (Source: "Assessing the Integrity of Publicly Funded Research: A Background Report for the November 2000 ORI Research Conference on Research Integrity" Nicholas H. Steneck, Ph.D. University of Michigan, ORI Consultant. November 2000. p. 2)

    "Bias and Conflict of Interest
    "There has been considerable debate about the role of values and personal interest in research ever since Merton proposed “disinterestedness” as one of four key values on which science rests (Merton 1942, p. 116). It is now widely recognized that values influence research (Jasanoff 1996), but there is also a common understanding that the influence of values should be minimized and made public, particularly when financial interests are involved.

    Considerable evidence exists to support the contention that personal interest does influence research behavior. Positive-outcome bias (favoring publications that report positive results over those that report negative results or that do not find results) has been demonstrated in a number of studies (Mahoney 1977; Dickersin 1992; Callaham 1998). The reverse effect has also been reported, that is, slower publication rates for studies that fail to find a particular result (Misakian  1998). Studies are just beginning to assess how these interests affect research and whether they are being properly managed (Campbell 1999; Boyd 2000; Cho 2000)

    In calling controversial publication, reporting, and other research practices “questionable,” the NAS report, Responsible Science,” highlighted an important problem. “Integrity” is not an all-or-nothing proposition. There is a difference between a failure to check the spelling of every author’s name or to catch every typo and using improper statistics or delaying the publication of a manuscript to please a sponsor. It is not easy to pinpoint where or when high standards for integrity in research give way to careless research practices, to irresponsible research practices or to misconduct. The extremes (high standards for integrity and misconduct) can be defined, but behaviors that fall between, to one extent or another, are all subject to interpretation. This, in turn, makes it imperative that these behaviors are well understood and their consequences evaluated, both as part of the process of reassuring the public that its research funds are being spent responsibility and as needed background information for developing responsible conduct of research training programs." (Source: ibid., p. 11-12)

    Significance of Misconduct Matters Most
    "The results of surveys, audits, and estimates of the rate of under-reporting raise two important issues for further consideration. First, however the results of surveys and audits are ultimately interpreted or clarified, there remains the troubling discrepancy between public statements about how “rare” misconduct in research supposedly is and the more private belief on the part of many researchers that it is in fact fairly common. How can these two views be reconciled?

    Second, whatever the actual rate of misconduct, it is not so much the rate as the significance of the misconduct that matters most. Summarizing the results of scientific data audits of the Cancer and Leukemia Group B’s clinical trials, Weiss et al. conclude that “scientific improprieties have occurred very rarely...” (Weiss 1993, p. 459). “Very rarely,” in this case, is based on a quantitative estimate of 0.28% (p. 462)–28 cases of misconduct for every 10,000 clinical researchers or one case for every 357 clinical researchers. On what basis can this rate be judged as either “rare” or “significant”? Clearly, understanding the importance of misconduct in research requires not only better estimates of numbers but also of significance. How much does a case of misconduct in research actually cost the public in terms of wasted research dollars, of deceptive findings that mislead other researchers until the misconduct is discovered, and perhaps of negative impacts on patient health?​"  (Source: ibid., p. 3-4)

Research Integrity (continued)
"Singapore Statement on Research Integrity"
"Preamble
The value and benefits of research are vitally dependent on the integrity of research. While there can be and are national and disciplinary differences in the way research is organized and conducted, there are also principles and professional responsibilities that are fundamental to the integrity of research wherever it is undertaken.

Principles
  • Honesty in all aspects of research
  • Accountability in the conduct of research
  • Professional courtesy and fairness in working with others
  • Good stewardship of research on behalf of others

Responsibilities
  1. Integrity: Researchers should take responsibility for the trustworthiness of their research.
  2. Adherence to Regulations: Researchers should be aware of and adhere to regulations and policies related to research.
  3. Research Methods: Researchers should employ appropriate research methods, base conclusions on critical analysis of the evidence, and report findings and interpretations fully and objectively.
  4. Research Records: Researchers should keep clear, accurate records of all research in ways that will allow verification and replication of their work by others.
  5. Research Findings: Researchers should share data and findings openly and promptly, as soon as they have had an opportunity to establish priority and ownership claims.
  6. Authorship: Researchers should take responsibility for their contributions to all publications, funding applications, reports, and other representations of their research. Lists of authors should include all those and only those who meet applicable authorship criteria.
  7. Publication Acknowledgment: Researchers should acknowledge in publications the names and roles of those who made significant contributions to the research, including writers, funders, sponsors, and others, but do not meet authorship criteria.
  8. Peer Review: Researchers should provide fair, prompt, and rigorous evaluations and respect confidentiality when reviewing others’ work.
  9. Conflict of Interest: Researchers should disclose financial and other conflicts of interest that could compromise the trustworthiness of their work in research proposals, publications, and public communications as well as in all review activities.
  10. Public Communication: Researchers should limit professional comments to their recognized expertise when engaged in public discussions about the application and importance of research findings and clearly distinguish professional comments from opinions based on personal views.
  11. Reporting Irresponsible Research Practices: Researchers should report to the appropriate authorities any suspected research misconduct, including fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism, and other irresponsible research practices that undermine the trustworthiness of research, such as carelessness, improperly listing authors, failing to report conflicting data, or the use of misleading analytical methods.
  12. Responding to Irresponsible Research Practices: Research institutions, as well as journals, professional organizations, and agencies that have commitments to research, should have procedures for responding to allegations of misconduct and other irresponsible research practices and for protecting those who report such behavior in good faith. When misconduct or other irresponsible research practice is confirmed, appropriate actions should be taken promptly, including correcting the research record.
  13. Research Environments: Research institutions should create and sustain environments that encourage integrity through education, clear policies, and reasonable standards for advancement, while fostering work environments that support research integrity.
  14. Societal Considerations: Researchers and research institutions should recognize that they have an ethical obligation to weigh societal benefits against risks inherent in their work."
    (Source: "The Singapore Statement on Research Integrity" NIH Public Access, Author Manuscript. David B. Resnik, J.D., Ph.D. and Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. Published in final edited form as: Account Res. 2011 March ; 18(2): 71–75. doi:10.1080/08989621.2011.557296.)
 
Research Integrity (continued)
"Netherlands Code of Conduct for Research Integrity (2018)​"
("Nederlandse Gedragscode Wetenschappelijke Integriteit (2018))"
​
​Research Misconduct
Department of Health and Human Service, Office of Research Integrity
  • Definition of Research Misconduct
    Research misconduct means fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results.
    (a) Fabrication is making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
    (b) Falsification is manipulating rsearch materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.
    (c) Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit.
    (d) Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion.
    (Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, Office of Research Integrity.  https://ori.hhs.gov/definition-misconduct)

  • "Avoiding Plagiarism, Self-plagiarism, and Other Questionable Writing Practices: A Guide to Ethical Writing"
    "The purpose of this module is to help students, as well as professionals, identify and prevent questionable practices and to develop an awareness of ethical writing. This guide was written by Miguel Roig, PhD, from St. Johns University with funding from ORI."

Research Misconduct  (continued)
U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF)
Included below is the formal definition of research misconduct by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), the largest funding organization of research and education in most fields of science and engineering.
​
(a) Research misconduct means fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing or performing research funded by NSF, reviewing research proposals submitted to NSF, or in reporting research results funded by NSF.
  1. Fabrication means making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
  2. Falsification means manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.
  3. Plagiarism means the appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results or words without giving appropriate credit.
Research, for purposes of paragraph (a) of this section, includes proposals submitted to NSF in all fields of science, engineering, mathematics, and education and results from such proposals. (Source: National Science Foundation, PART 689—RESEARCH MISCONDUCT, p. 237,  https://www.nsf.gov/oig/_pdf/cfr/45-CFR-689.pdf)

Research Misconduct  (continued)
U.S. Federal Register, Part III, Department of Health and Human Services
CFR › Title 42 › Chapter I › Subchapter H › Part 93 › Subpart C › Section 93.310
"§ 93.310 Institutional investigation.
Institutions conducting research misconduct investigations must:
  • (a) Time. Begin the investigation within 30 days after determining that an investigation is warranted.

  • (b) Notice to ORI. Notify the ORI Director of the decision to begin an investigation on or before the date the investigation begins and provide an inquiry report that meets the requirements of § 93.307 and § 93.309.

  • (c) Notice to the respondent. Notify the respondent in writing of the allegations within a reasonable amount of time after determining that an investigation is warranted, but before the investigation begins. The institution must give the respondent written notice of any new allegations of research misconduct within a reasonable amount of time of deciding to pursue allegations not addressed during the inquiry or in the initial notice of investigation.

  • (d) Custody of the records. To the extent they have not already done so at the allegation or inquiry stages, take all reasonable and practical steps to obtain custody of all the research records and evidence needed to conduct the research misconduct proceeding, inventory the records and evidence, and sequester them in a secure manner, except that where the research records or evidence encompass scientific instruments shared by a number of users, custody may be limited to copies of the data or evidence on such instruments, so long as those copies are substantially equivalent to the evidentiary value of the instruments. Whenever possible, the institution must take custody of the records -

    (1) Before or at the time the institution notifies the respondent; and
    (2) Whenever additional items become known or relevant to the investigation.

  • (e) Documentation. Use diligent efforts to ensure that the investigation is thorough and sufficiently documented and includes examination of all research records and evidence relevant to reaching a decision on the merits of the allegations.

  • (f) Ensuring a fair investigation. Take reasonable steps to ensure an impartial and unbiased investigation to the maximum extent practicable, including participation of persons with appropriate scientific expertise who do not have unresolved personal, professional, or financial conflicts of interest with those involved with the inquiry or investigation.

  • (g) Interviews. Interview each respondent, complainant, and any other available person who has been reasonably identified as having information regarding any relevant aspects of the investigation, including witnesses identified by the respondent, and record or transcribe each interview, provide the recording or transcript to the interviewee for correction, and include the recording or transcript in the record of the investigation.

    (h) Pursue leads. Pursue diligently all significant issues and leads discovered that are determined relevant to the investigation, including any evidence of additional instances of possible research misconduct, and continue the investigation to completion.
    (Source: Cornell University, Cornell Law School, Legal Information Institute (LII) "42 CFR 93.310 - Institutional investigation."  Also see: "42 CFR Part 93 - PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE POLICIES ON RESEARCH MISCONDUCT" Also see: Part III, Department of Health and Human Services, 42 CFR Parts 50 and 93 Public Health Service Policies on Research Misconduct; Final Rule, Federal Register / Vol. 70, No. 94 / Tuesday, May 17, 2005 / Rules and Regulations)
  • Also see: Cornell Law School, Legal Information Institute
    42 CFR Part 93 - PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE POLICIES ON RESEARCH MISCONDUCT
    ​https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/42/part-93
    ​
CFR › Title 42 › Chapter I › Subchapter H › Part 93 › Subpart A › Section 93.103"42 CFR 93.310 - Institutional investigation
§ 93.103 Research misconduct.
Research misconduct means fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results.
  • (a) Fabrication is making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
  • (b) Falsification is manipulating researchmaterials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.
  • (c) Plagiarism is the appropriation of anotherperson's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit.
  • (d) Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion.
    (Source: Cornell University, Cornell Law School, Legal Information Institute (LII)  "42 CFR 93.103 - Research misconduct.")

Research Misconduct  (continued)
  • The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers​ (STM)
    "The STM Report: An overview of scientific and scholarly publishing, Fifth edition, October 2018"
    "2.15 Publishing ethics
    There has been a growing awareness of the need for higher (or at least more transparent) ethical standards in journal publishing to deal with issues such as conflict of interest, ghostwriting, guest authorship, citation rings, peer review rigging, authorship disputes, falsification and fabrication of data, scientific fraud, unethical experimentation and plagiarism. Much of the criticism has been addressed at the intersection of the biomedical journals and pharmaceutical industry but the issues are by no means unique to this sector." (Source: "The STM Report: An overview of scientific and scholarly publishing, Fifth edition, October 2018" Rob Johnson, Research Consulting; Anthony Watkinson, CIBER Research; Michael Mabe, The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers. 

  • "Scientific Misconduct and Medical Journals"
    "The Role and Responsibilities of Institutions
    Institutions are expected to conduct an appropriate and thorough investigation of allegations of scientific misconduct. Some institutions are immediately responsive, acknowledging receipt of the letter from the journal describing the concerns, and quickly begin an investigation. In other cases, it may take time to identify the appropriate institutional individuals to contact, and even then, many months to receive a response. Some institutions appear well-equipped to conduct investigations, whereas other institutions appear to have little experience in such matters or fail to conduct adequate investigations 13; these institutions can take months to years to provide JAMA with an adequate response. In some cases involving questions of misconduct from outside of the United States, institutions have indicated that further investigation must wait until numerous legal issues are resolved, further delaying a response." (Source: "Scientific Misconduct and Medical Journals" Howard Bauchner, MD; Phil B. Fontanarosa, MD, MBA; Annette Flanagin, RN, MA; Joe Thornton, JD. Editorial, JAMA. Published online October 19, 2018. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.14350)

  • "Duke’s mishandling of misconduct prompts new U.S. government grant oversight"
    "Duke has been hit by multiple high-profile misconduct cases in recent years. One such case involved Anil Potti, a once-rising star in cancer research who fabricated data, leading to 12 retractions, multiple lawsuits, and reprimands from the medical board. The university is also involved in an ongoing lawsuit filed by a whistleblower, which alleges that a pulmonary scientist, her supervisor, and the university included fraudulent data in federal documents associated with more dozens of grants worth hundreds of millions of dollars.
    (Source: "Duke’s mishandling of misconduct prompts new U.S. government grant oversight" By Alison McCook, Retraction Watch in Science Mar. 23, 2018 , 4:15 PM) [Note: See: "Case Summary: Potti, Anil" and "Notice is hereby given that the Office of Research Integrity (ORI) has taken final action in the following case: Anil Potti, M.D., Duke University School of Medicine"]

  • "Duke University to settle case alleging researchers used fraudulent data to win millions in grants" 
    "According to court documents filed last week in the Middle District of North Carolina in Greensboro, former Duke biologist Joseph Thomas, who sued the university in 2015 under a federal law that allows whistleblowers to receive as much as 30% of any payout, is waiting for the U.S. Department of Justice to approve the settlement. Thomas brought his case under the federal False Claims Act (FCA), which could force Duke to return to the government up to three times the amount of any ill-gotten funds." (Source:  "Duke University to settle case alleging researchers used fraudulent data to win millions in grants" By Ivan Oransky, Retraction Watch Nov. 19, 2018, 12:10 PM. Science. Posted in: Scientific Community. doi:10.1126/science.aaw1185)

  • "It’s time to end the code of silence at universities"
    "Although two Federal agencies — the U.S. Office of Research Integrity and the National Science Foundation’s Office of the Inspector General — do have oversight of university investigations into scientific misconduct, the public has no way of knowing whether such investigations were carried out properly. As we and a colleague wrote in the Journal of the American Medical Association earlier this year, when universities investigate their own — which by Federal statute, they are obligated to do — they have serious conflicts of interest, and the resulting investigations are often deeply flawed." (Source: "It’s time to end the code of silence at universities" Ivan Oransky. Retraction Watch November 6, 2018)

  • "Bulgarian university rector faces dismissal over plagiarism​"
    "Bulgaria’s Education Minister will sack the rector of the Technical University of Varna, Rossen Vassilev, after an ethics commission found evidence of extensive plagiarism in his doctoral dissertation.
    It is a first for Bulgaria, after amendments passed earlier this year created the legal grounds for an academic ethics commission at the Education Ministry. The amendments were, in part, prompted by the highly-publicised accusations against Vassilev, which first surfaced last year and made by some of colleagues at the university.
    At the time, the law’s provisions only allowed for a court challenge from the plagiarised authors.
    Under the amended law, Vassilev’s doctoral dissertation and scientific publications he presented to be granted the professor title were reviewed by three arbiters. Their findings – namely that Vassilev plagiarised more than 90 per cent of his dissertation, including spelling and grammar mistakes in the source material – were the grounds for the ethics commission to rule that Vassilev was guilty of plagiarism.
    Bulgaria’s Education Minister Krassimir Vulchev said that Vassilev will be stripped of this doctoral degree, would lose his professor title and the position as rector of the university. An interim rector would be appointed by the minister next week, who would terminate Vassilev’s employment contract.
    But the law does not prevent Vassilev from retaining his position as a lecturer at the university – docent, in Bulgarian academia parlance – and could even be re-elected rector by the university’s general assembly, one media report claimed.
    Vassilev previously denied the accusations against him and the Technical University of Varna published a lengthy rebuttal of the ethics committee’s decision, questioning the motivation of Vassilev’s accusers and the credentials of the arbiters selected to review his dissertation.
    It also warned that the ethics commission was being used for a “witch hunt” and said that any disputes about plagiarism should be settled in court." (Source: "Written by The Sofia Globe staff on November 9, 2018 in Bulgaria - Comments Off on Bulgarian university rector faces dismissal over plagiarism")
  • "Years of Ethics Charges, but Star Cancer Researcher Gets a Pass"
    "'A Tremendous Conflict of Interest'
    Within the realm of biomedical science, it falls to the Office of Research Integrity to issue formal findings of scientific misconduct, which can lead to suspension of federal financing and effectively end a research career. The office labors under an awkward constraint: It does not carry out its own investigations, but relies on accused researchers’ own institutions to forward their findings.

    With their own reputations on the line, institutions “have a tremendous conflict of interest,” said Dr. Richard Smith, former editor of The British Medical Journal and a founding member of the Committee on Publication Ethics in Britain. “There’s a terrible temptation to bury it all,” he added.
    ​
    There are also dollars at stake. Of the $29.1 million Dr. Croce has received in federal funding as a principal investigator while at Ohio State, university records show, $8.7 million has gone directly to the university in overhead payments, a fairly standard cut for research institutions." (Source: "Years of Ethics Charges, but Star Cancer Researcher Gets a Pass" By James Glanz and Agustin Armendariz. The New York Times March 8, 2017. "A version of this article appears in print on March 9, 2017, on Page A1 of the New York edition with the headline: Years of Questions, but Researcher Gets a Pass.") [Also see: "Judge dismisses most of Carlo Croce’s libel case against the New York Times" in Retraction Watch. Ivan Oransky. November 8, 2018]

  • "Institutional Research Misconduct Reports Need More Credibility"
    "The Office of Inspector General (OIG) of the National Science Foundation (NSF) has found that the reports of some institutions do not meet reasonable standards. For instance, some reports from universities do not ask relevant research questions, or they fail to appropriately expand the investigation beyond a particular allegation; other reports focus on finding fault with an individual when many were involved in the research; and for some other reports, committee members have lacked relevant expertise (email from Alan Boehm, MFS; James T. Kroll, PhD; and Aaron S. Manka, PhD; December 2017). These are not idiosyncratic or 1-time problems. A partial list of shortcomings that the OIG staff has compiled and shared at conferences includes the following:
    • Investigative reports that lack supporting evidence and fail to address the elements of a research misconduct finding, particularly intent;
    • Individuals who are the subjects of the investigation blaming the student or postdoctoral researchers, but the investigative committee never interviewing these individuals;
    • Accepting, without question, excuses by the subjects of the investigation; and
    • Relying only on information in allegations, not checking for patterns or other misconduct."
      (Source: "Institutional Research Misconduct Reports Need More Credibility" C. K. Gunsalus, JD; Adam R. Marcus, MA; Ivan Oransky, MD. JAMA. 2018;319(13):1315-1316. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.0358)​​
  • "Stanford University's Research Policy HandbooK (RPH)"
    Policies
    "1. Conduct of Research
    1.1 Principles Concerning Research
    1.2 Rights and Responsibilities in the Conduct of Research
    1.3 Academic Freedom
    1.4 Openness in Research
    1.5 On Academic Authorship
    1.6 Multi-Authored Research Papers
    1.7 Research Misconduct: Policy on Allegations, Investigations, and Reporting
    1.8 Nondiscrimination in Research Agreements
    1.9 Retention of and Access to Research Data"
    (Source: https://doresearch.stanford.edu/policies/research-policy-handbook)
  • "1.7 Research Misconduct: Policy on Allegations, Investigations, and Reporting"
    Presents procedures for reporting and investigating allegations of research misconduct, and for the required notifications to federal agencies of such allegations and investigations.
    Jump To:
    1. Introduction
    2. Applicability
    3. Definitions
    4. Federal Funding Agency Requirements
    5. Individual Reporting Responsibility
    6. Procedure for School Dean's Review
    7. Internal Coordination/Reports to the Dean of Research
    8. Notification to External Agencies
    9. Determination of Discipline
    10. Cautions and Assistance"
    (Source: https://doresearch.stanford.edu/policies/research-policy-handbook/conduct-research/research-misconduct-policy-allegations-investigations-and-reporting#main-content)

  • "Lies, Damned Lies, and Medical Science"
    "Dr. John Ioannidis Exposes the Bad Science of Colleagues - The Atlantic​"

    "Much of what medical researchers conclude in their studies is misleading, exaggerated, or flat-out wrong. So why are doctors—to a striking extent—still drawing upon misinformation in their everyday practice? Dr. John Ioannidis has spent his career challenging his peers by exposing their bad science.
    (...)
    "But beyond the headlines, Ioannidis was shocked at the range and reach of the reversals he was seeing in everyday medical research. “Randomized controlled trials,” which compare how one group responds to a treatment against how an identical group fares without the treatment, had long been considered nearly unshakable evidence, but they, too, ended up being wrong some of the time. “I realized even our gold-standard research had a lot of problems,” he says. Baffled, he started looking for the specific ways in which studies were going wrong. And before long he discovered that the range of errors being committed was astonishing: from what questions researchers posed, to how they set up the studies, to which patients they recruited for the studies, to which measurements they took, to how they analyzed the data, to how they presented their results, to how particular studies came to be published in medical journals.
    This array suggested a bigger, underlying dysfunction, and Ioannidis thought he knew what it was. “The studies were biased,” he says. “Sometimes they were overtly biased. Sometimes it was difficult to see the bias, but it was there.” Researchers headed into their studies wanting certain results—and, lo and behold, they were getting them. We think of the scientific process as being objective, rigorous, and even ruthless in separating out what is true from what we merely wish to be true, but in fact it’s easy to manipulate results, even unintentionally or unconsciously. “At every step in the process, there is room to distort results, a way to make a stronger claim or to select what is going to be concluded,” says Ioannidis. “There is an intellectual conflict of interest that pressures researchers to find whatever it is that is most likely to get them funded.”
    (...)
    "THOUGH SCIENTISTS AND science journalists are constantly talking up the value of the peer-review process, researchers admit among themselves that biased, erroneous, and even blatantly fraudulent studies easily slip through it. Nature, the grande dame of science journals, stated in a 2006 editorial, “Scientists understand that peer review per se provides only a minimal assurance of quality, and that the public conception of peer review as a stamp of authentication is far from the truth.” What’s more, the peer-review process often pressures researchers to shy away from striking out in genuinely new directions, and instead to build on the findings of their colleagues (that is, their potential reviewers) in ways that only seem like breakthroughs—as with the exciting-sounding gene linkages (autism genes identified!) and nutritional findings (olive oil lowers blood pressure!) that are really just dubious and conflicting variations on a theme.
    (...)
    Perhaps only a minority of researchers were succumbing to this bias, but their distorted findings were having an outsize effect on published research. To get funding and tenured positions, and often merely to stay afloat, researchers have to get their work published in well-regarded journals, where rejection rates can climb above 90 percent. Not surprisingly, the studies that tend to make the grade are those with eye-catching findings. But while coming up with eye-catching theories is relatively easy, getting reality to bear them out is another matter. The great majority collapse under the weight of contradictory data when studied rigorously. Imagine, though, that five different research teams test an interesting theory that’s making the rounds, and four of the groups correctly prove the idea false, while the one less cautious group incorrectly “proves” it true through some combination of error, fluke, and clever selection of data. Guess whose findings your doctor ends up reading about in the journal, and you end up hearing about on the evening news? Researchers can sometimes win attention by refuting a prominent finding, which can help to at least raise doubts about results, but in general it is far more rewarding to add a new insight or exciting-sounding twist to existing research than to retest its basic premises—after all, simply re-proving someone else’s results is unlikely to get you published, and attempting to undermine the work of respected colleagues can have ugly professional repercussions." (Source: "Lies, Damned Lies, and Medical Science" David H. Freedman. The Atlantic November 2010 Issue)
    ​
The Stanford Center for Clinical and Translational Research and Education, Stanford University
  • The mission of Spectrum, Stanford’s Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA)-supported research hub, is to transform clinical and translational research and education at Stanford to make it more effective at discovering and implementing data-driven strategies to serve the health needs of individuals and the population. Spectrum’s programs extend from the earliest stages of the translational pipeline to the “final mile” of implementation science at the patient and population levels. Spectrum leverages local achievements, institutional strengths and resources, and advancements in the focus of the CTSA consortium to nurture an innovative and collaborative workforce that can transfer health discoveries from the University to patients and the community.

Meta-Research Innovation Center, Stanford University​
  • Goals
    • Build the meta-research field and catalyze solutions-focused research to develop best scientific practices
    • Provide leaders with the skills and knowledge needed to support the development and implementation of high-quality research
    • Transform research practices to strengthen the evidence base for informed decision-making

Best Practices in Science (BPS Group), Stanford University

Research Misconduct  (continued)
"To catch misconduct, journals are hiring research integrity czars"
"Scientific journals’ creation of dedicated positions for rooting out misconduct before publication comes amid growing awareness of such issues, and stems from a recognition that spot-checking and other ad hoc arrangements were insufficient" (Source: "To catch misconduct, journals are hiring research integrity czars" By IVAN ORANSKY and ADAM MARCUS. STAT NOVEMBER 21, 2018)


"China introduces sweeping reforms to crack down on academic misconduct"
"Initiatives include a national list of cases, a blacklist of ‘poor quality’ journals and a government agency that is responsible for policing misconduct."
  • "China is getting tough on scientific misconduct. The country’s most powerful bodies, the Chinese Communist Party and the State Council, introduced a raft of reforms on 30 May aimed at improving integrity across the research spectrum, from funding and job applications to peer-review and publications.

    Under the new policy, the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) will be responsible for managing investigations and ruling on cases of scientific misconduct, a role previously performed by individual institutions. And for the first time, misconduct cases will be logged in a national database that is currently being designed by MOST.

    Inclusion in the list could disqualify researchers from future funding or research positions, and might also affect their ability to get jobs outside academia. The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences will oversee the same process for social scientists." (Source: "China introduces sweeping reforms to crack down on academic misconduct" David Cyranoski. Nature VOL 558. 08 June 2018. p. 171. View/Download pdf here.)

Research Misconduct (continued)
UK Research Integrity Office (UKRIO)
  • Included below is the formal definition of research misconduct by the UK Research Integrity Office (UKRIO).
    "3.16 Misconduct in research
    3.16.1 Organisations should define what they consider to be misconduct in research and make it known to researchers
    UKRIO defines misconduct in research as including, but not limited to:
         a) Fabrication;
         b) Falsification;
         c) Misrepresentation of data and/or interests and/or involvement;
         d) Plagiarism; and
         e) Failures to follow accepted procedures or to exercise due care in carrying out responsibilities for:
              i) avoiding unreasonable risk or harm to:
                 - humans;
                 - animals used in research; and
                 - the environment; and
           ii) the proper handling of privileged or private information on individuals collected during the research."
    (Source: UK Research Integrity Office, 3.16 Misconduct in research)​ ​

Research Misconduct (continued)
The Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees
  • "The National Committee for Research Ethics in Science and Technology (NENT) is part of the Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees, an independent administrative agency under the Ministry of Education and Research. NENT is an impartial advisory body providing guidance and advice on research ethics, and the guidelines are important tools for promoting good scientific practice in the Norwegian research system." (Source: Back cover of: "Guidelines for research ethics in science and technology" Issued by The Norwegian National Committee for Research Ethics in Science and Technology (2016), p. 10. Text: The Norwegian National Committees for Research Ethics, Last updated: Tuesday, June 28, 2016. ISBN 978-82-7682-075-1)
  • Fraud and plagiarism
    "It may be tempting to dress up in borrowed plumage (plagiarise/refrain from referring to one’s sources), cook data (falsify data) or simply invent (fabricate) data, and disregard the fact that this violates fundamental and internationally accepted rules for good research practice." (Source: "Fraud and plagiarism" Text: Torkild Vinther, Last updated: 25. February 2016. The Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees)
  • "Scientific integrity
    Researchers are responsible for respecting the research results of others and for exercising good scientific practice. Researchers must not conceal, misrepresent or falsify anything, whether in the planning, execution or reporting of the research. Plagiarism involves presenting the ideas or research of others as one’s own.

    The individual researcher has an independent responsibility not to accept departures from good scientific practice, on his or her own account or that of others. 2  Researchers who discover or are made aware of errors in their research, must admit the error, correct it, and ensure that the consequences of the error are minimal."
    (Source: "Guidelines for research ethics in science and technology" Issued by The Norwegian National Committee for Research Ethics in Science and Technology (2016), p. 10. Text: The Norwegian National Committees for Research Ethics, Last updated: Tuesday, June 28, 2016. ISBN 978-82-7682-075-1)
  • "Good citation practice
    It is in the nature of research to build on research by others. Researchers who take advantage of the ideas and research by others, both published and unpublished, must acknowledge this accurately, so that it is clear what the researcher’s own contribution is. Researchers must give a balanced and correct presentation of the research of others. Citations make research traceable and verifiable."
    [2  The Act on ethics and integrity in research (the Research Ethics Act).] (Source: ibid.)
  • "5 Researchers must respect the contributions of other researchers and observe standards of authorship and cooperation.
    Researchers must observe good publication practice. They must clarify individual responsibilities in group work as well as the rules for co-authorship. Honorary authorship is unacceptable. When several authors contribute, each authorship must be justified. Justified authorship is defined by four criteria, in accordance with the criteria drawn up by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) 3 :
    a) Researchers must have made a substantial contribution to the conception and design or the data acquisition or the data analysis and interpretation; and
    b) researchers must have contributed to drafting the manuscript or critical revision of the intellectual content of the publication; and 
    c) researchers must have approved the final version before publication; and
    d) researchers must be able to accept responsibility for and be accountable for the work as a whole (albeit not necessarily all technical details) unless otherwise specified.

    All authors in a multidisciplinary publication must be able to account for the part or parts for which they have been responsible in the research work, and which part or parts are the responsibility of other contributors.

    All those who meet criterion a) must be able to meet b) and c). Contributors who do not fulfil all the criteria must be acknowledged.

Research Misconduct (continued)
Research Integrity in Norway (RINO) – a study of scientific misconduct and questionable research practices
  • The RINO Project is featured on the website of the European Network of Research Integrity Offices (ENRIO). Norway is a founding member of ENRIO. Torkild Vinther, Director of The National Commission for the Investigation of Research Misconduct, is Vice-Chair of ENRIO. Moreover, Torkild Vinther is a member of the Reference Group for the RINO Project. (Source: ENRIO website: http://www.enrio.eu/news-activities/research-integrity-norway-rino/, RINO Project website: https://www.uib.no/en/rino and RINO Project PDF: )
  • Torkild Vinther authored a book chapter titled "SKJØNNSUTØVELSE I STADFESTING AV PLAGIAT" ("EXERCISE DISCRETION IN CONFIRMATION OF PLAGIARISM") in: Etisk skjønn i forskning (Ethical discretion in research).  Included below is an excerpt form this article in which Torkild Vinther makes the important point that along with text plagiarism, failure to credit the source of one's ideas is also plagiarism.
    • "Although the main focus is text plagiarism, it is still necessary to mention explicitly where you have acquired your ideas (models, concepts, hypotheses, explanations, metaphors, operationalizations, conclusions, etc.). Cosmetic or minor changes do not remove the requirement to credit the source. If you do not, it will appear that the idea is one's own."
      "Selv om hovedfokus er tekstplagiat, skal det likevel nevnes at man eksplisitt må vise til hvor man har hentet sine ideer (modeller, begreper, hypoteser, forklaringer, metaforer, operasjonaliseringer, konklusjoner osv.). Kosmetiske eller mindre endringer fjerner ikke kravet om å kreditere kilden. Gjør man ikke det, vil det fremstå som om ideen er ens egen."       (Source: "SKJØNNSUTØVELSE I STADFESTING AV PLAGIAT" in Etisk skjønn i forskning edited by Hallvard J. Fossheim og Helene Ingierd 2015 (Redaksjonelt arbeid, utvalg og introduksjon (Editorial work, selection and introduction)) p. 87-98) [Note: About the editors: Hallvard J. Fossheim is Professor of Philosophy, University of Bergen and the (2010-2014) secretariat leader of The National Research Ethical Committee for Social Sciences and Humanities (NESH) and the National Committee for the Evaluation of Human Resource Research (Skelettutvalget); and, Helene Ingierd is Director, The National Committee for Research Ethics in Science and Technology (NESH)] 
  • The RINO Project’s first interim report showed the percentages of the RINO survey respondents who know colleagues who have participated inquestionable or unacceptable practices of Fabrication, Falsification & Plagiarism over the last 3 years to be 2.2%, 2.2% & 13.8%, respectively (Table 7, p. 16/English; 13/Norwegian). It would appear Plagiarism is more than 6 times more prevalent than Fabrication and Falsification.
    • "The RINO survey shows that, of the three mentioned practices, knowledge of colleagues’ plagiarism is far more widespread than knowledge of colleagues fabricating or falsifying data."
      "Almost 14%, or around 1 in 7 respondents, state that they are aware of colleagues plagiarising others’ work in the last three years.The corresponding figure for fabricating or falsifying data is just 2%, or 1 in 50." (Source: English: "Research integrity in Norway – results from a nationwide survey on research ethics" Johs. Hjellbrekke, Laura Drivdal, Helene Ingierd, Ole Bjørn Rekdal, Heidi Skramstad, Ingrid S. Torp og Matthias Kaiser. 2018. p. 16. ISBN: 978-82-7682-082-9) [Note: RINO Project survey questionnaire; RINO website: RESEARCH INTEGRITY IN NORWAY (RINO)]

      "RINO-undersøkelsen viser at av de tre nevnte praksisene er kjennskap til kollegaers plagiering langt mer utbredt enn kjennskap til kollegaers datafabrikkering eller dataforfalskning."
      "Nesten 14 %, eller drøyt 1 av 7 respondenter, oppgir at de kjenner til kollegaers plagiering av andres arbeid de siste tre årene. For fabrikkering eller forfalsking av data er tilsvarende tall kun 2 %, eller 1 av 50."  Source: "ETIKK OG INTEGRITET I FORSKNING – resultater fra en landsomfattende undersøkelse" Johs. Hjellbrekke, Laura Drivdal, Helene Ingierd, Ole Bjørn Rekdal, Heidi Skramstad, Ingrid S. Torp og Matthias Kaiser. 2018. ISBN trykt utgave: 978-82-7682-080-5; ISBN digital utgave: 978-82-7682-081-2. p. 14) [Note: RINO Project Spørreskjemaet bokmål; RINO website: FORSKNINGSINTEGRITET I NORGE (RINO)]

​Research Misconduct (continued)
The Research Ethics Act of Norway addresses research misconduct as "scientific misconduct" as follows.
  • "During the preparation of the Act there was wide debate as to whether the broad or the narrow definition should be used. After the Act's entry into force, we now have an official Norwegian definition. It goes as follows: "Scientific misconduct is defined as falsification, fabrication, plagiarism and other serious breaches of good research practice that have been committed wilfully or through gross negligence when planning, carrying out or reporting on research (italics added)." (Source: The Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees; "Fraud and plagiarism" Text: Torkild Vinther, Last updated: 25. February 2016.  https://www.etikkom.no/en/library/topics/integrity-and-collegiality/fraud-and-plagiarism/#Definition)

    "In other words, the definition goes beyond FFP. It is also worth noting that the Act operates on the concept of so-called subjective guilt."  (Source: ibid.)
    See: Research Ethics Act​
  • Norway's Research Ethics Act (Section 8)
    "Scientific misconduct means falsification, fabrication, plagiarism and other serious breaches of recognized research ethical norms committed intentionally or through gross negligence in planning, conducting or reporting research." ("Med vitenskapelig uredelighet menes forfalskning,  fabrikkering, plagiering og andre alvorlige  brudd på anerkjente forskningsetiske normer som er  begått forsettlig eller grovt uaktsomt i planlegging,  gjennomføring eller rapportering av forskning.") (Source: "Law on the organization of research ethical work (the Research Ethics Act)" LOV-2017-04-28-23, Commencement 01.05.2017, https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2017-04-28-23​). See: Research Ethics Act

Research Misconduct (continued)
NTNU
CONSULTATION NOTIFICATIONS IN THE RESEARCH ETHICS ACT (HØRINGSNOTAT - ENDRINGER I FORSKNINGSETIKKLOVEN)
5. Research ethical responsibility of researchers and research institutions (Forskere og forskningsinstitusjoners forskningsetiske ansvar)
5.2. Experiences and current practice (Erfaringer og dagens praksis)
5.2.2. University and college sector (Universitets - og høyskolesektoren)
  • The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) has ethical guidelines for NTNU employees, a dedicated Research Ethics Committee and an Ethics Portal. 11 Here emerges it in Item 5 that the individual researcher has an independent responsibility for ensuring that his/her research is carried out in line with sound research practice, recognised scientific and ethical principles, and the framework agreed both internally and externally. The NTNU management is responsible for ensuring that the research is conducted pursuant to statutes, regulations and ethical guidelines. The topics addressed in the guidelines are linked to sound research ethics practice, academic community and guidance, publication, professional disagreement, the obligation to report and right to publish, as well as financial diligence for externally funded projects. The ethical guidelines include a number of links, for example to the Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees' guidelines, to NTNU's Research Ethics Committee and to NTNU's reporting procedures. The Ethics Portal is a website for all NTNU employees and has a special focus on research ethics and personal ethics dilemmas. The objective is to stimulate ethical reflection at all levels at NTNU. Several major ethics seminars have been held at NTNU in recent years; both for the Board and for deans, vice-deans and all department heads. This is part of the effort to raise awareness and mature the dialogue surrounding ethical dilemmas in research. 12
    NTNU has established a Research Ethics Committee with five members, including an external member who is an attorney. The Committee must hear and give an opinion on cases in the event of suspicion of scientific misconduct. The Committee is also tasked with hearing other types of cases that concern research ethics when so requested by the Rector or deans. The Committee has been given its own mandate and regulations, but dedicated routines have also been prepared for case processing in the faculties in the event of suspicion of research misconduct. NTNU aims for suspicions of research misconduct to be handled immediately within the unit in question." (Source: NORWEGIAN MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND RESEARCH, "Consultation paper – Research Ethics in Norway" p. 9. "This document is a part of a consultation paper published by the Ministry of Education and Research in July 2015, with proposed amendments to Act No. 56 of 30 June 2006 on ethics and integrity in research (the Research Ethics Act).")

    "Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet (NTNU) har etiske retningslinjer for ansatte  ved NTNU, et eget forskningsetisk utvalg og en etikkportal. I de etiske retningslinjene er  spesifikke retningslinjer for forskning nedfelt. 22 Her framgår det i punkt 5 at den enkelte  forsker har et selvstendig ansvar for at forskningen utføres i samsvar med god forskningsskikk,  anerkjente vitenskapelige og etiske prinsipper, og avtalte rammer internt og eksternt.  NTNUs ledelse har ansvar for at forskningen utføres i samsvar med lov og regelverk og  etiske retningslinjer. Tema som tas opp i retningslinjene er knyttet til god forskningsetisk  praksis, fagfellesskap og veiledning, publisering, faglig uenighet, meldeplikt og publiseringsrett  og økonomisk etterrettelighet ved eksternfinansierte prosjekter. De etiske retningslinjene  har en rekke lenker, blant annet til de nasjonale forskningsetiske komiteenes retningslinjer, til  NTNUs forskningsetiske utvalg og til NTNUs varslingsrutiner. Etikkportalen er et nettsted  for alle ansatte ved NTNU og har særlig fokus på forskningsetiske og personaletiske  dilemmaer. Målet er å stimulere til etisk refleksjon på alle nivåer ved NTNU. I de siste årene  har det vært flere store etikkseminarer ved NTNU; både for styret og for dekaner, prodekaner  og alle instituttlederne. Dette er ledd i bevisstgjøringen og modningen rundt etiske dilemmaer  i forskningen. 23 NTNU har opprettet forskningsetisk utvalg som har fem medlemmer, inklusive et eksternt  medlem som er jurist. Utvalget skal behandle og gi uttalelse i saker ved mistanke om  vitenskapelig uredelighet. I tillegg skal utvalget behandle andre typer saker som angår  forskningsetikk når rektor eller dekaner ber om det. Utvalget har fått eget mandat og  reglement, men i tillegg er det utarbeidet egne rutiner for saksbehandling ved fakultetene ved  mistanke om uredelighet i forskning. NTNU legger opp til at mistanke om uredelighet i  forskning skal håndteres umiddelbart ved den aktuelle enhet.
    NTNU har opprettet forskningsetisk utvalg som har fem medlemmer, inklusive et eksternt medlem som er jurist. Utvalget skal behandle og gi uttalelse i saker ved mistanke om vitenskapelig uredelighet. I tillegg skal utvalget behandle andre typer saker som angår forskningsetikk når rektor eller dekaner ber om det. Utvalget har fått eget mandat og reglement, men i tillegg er det utarbeidet egne rutiner for saksbehandling ved fakultetene ved mistanke om uredelighet i forskning. NTNU legger opp til at mistanke om uredelighet i forskning skal håndteres umiddelbart ved den aktuelle enhet." (Source: "HØRINGSNOTAT - ENDRINGER I FORSKNINGSETIKKLOVEN" 7. juli 2015. p. 27. "Kunnskapsdepartementet legger med dette frem forslag til endringer i lov 30. juni 2006 nr. 56 om behandling av etikk og redelighet i forskning (forskningsetikkloven)." "The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture proposes amendments to Act 30 June 2006 No. 56 on the treatment of ethics and fairness in research (the Research Ethics Act).")

  • "Ethical guidelines for employees at NTNU"  (Etiske retningslinjer for ansatte ved NTNU)
    Overall ethical guideline for employees at NTNU. Established by the Rector April 14, 2015. (last updated 26.1.2017)
    (Samlet etisk retningslinje for ansatte ved NTNU. Fastsatt av Rektor 14. april, 2015. (sist oppdatert 26.1.2017))

  • NTNU's Ethics Portalor NTNU's (Etikkportalen)

Research Misconduct (continued)
"Organisational responses to alleged scientific misconduct: Sensemaking, sensegiving, and sensehiding"
  • "The growing concern over scientific misconduct has led to a substantial amount of research on the incidence, causes and patterns of misconduct (Hackett 1994; Vaughan 2002; Faria 2014, 2015). However, while scholars increasingly acknowledge the importance for organisations to provide a healthy working climate that fosters research integrity (Martinson et al. 2013), little is known about how universities and research organisations respond to cases of alleged misconduct. Researchers have a great deal of autonomy in their work, through the notion of ‘academic freedom’; yet, researchers are also employees, and they work in formal organisational surroundings, where universities, as employers, have responsibilities to act in situations of alleged misconduct. Even though we know at least implicitly that universities have such obligations, we lack knowledge on how they respond to alleged scientific misconduct and why they respond as they do. Even though some studies have addressed the issue of responses to scientific misconduct empirically (Mazur 1989; Steneck 1994; Bonito et al. 2012) much uncertainty still exists about the specific mechanisms at play as well as their consequences (Ben-Yehuda and Oliver-Lumerman 2017). In addition, previous studies on responses to alleged misconduct have been predominantly empirical in nature and have so far failed to add sufficient theoretical knowledge.
​
(Source: "Organisational responses to alleged scientific misconduct: Sensemaking, sensegiving, and sensehiding" Serge P J M Horbach, Eric Breit, Svenn-Erik Mamelund. Science and Public Policy, 2018, 1–15. Published: 04 December 2018.  doi: 10.1093/scipol/scy068. https://doi.org/10.1093/scipol/scy068. View/Dowload pdf here.)
https://academic.oup.com/spp/advance-article/doi/10.1093/scipol/scy068/5230895
https://academic.oup.com/spp/advance-article-pdf/doi/10.1093/scipol/scy068/26997523/scy068.pdf

Research Misconduct (continued)
"Intelligent plagiarists are the most dangerous"
  • "How should we tackle the increasing problem of researchers rewriting others' results?
    Sir

    In your News story “Plagiarism in Cambridge physics lab prompts calls for guidelines” (Nature 427, 3; 2004) and your Editorial “Complacency about misconduct” (Nature 427, 1; 200410.1038/427001a), journals were criticized for not responding appropriately to plagiarism.

    In my work as one of the editors of Physica Scripta, I have in recent years seen an increasing number of attempts at blatant plagiarism. For example, in 1973 I was one of five authors of a paper published in Physica Scripta (7, 241–249; 1973). Many years later an almost identical paper appeared in the Indian Journal of Pure and Applied Physics (36, 273–279; 1998), where the main difference was that our names had been replaced by the names of two other authors.

    However upsetting this may be, I believe that such naive plagiarism is not a significant threat to confidence in science, because such behaviour will ultimately have limited success.

    What is worse, in my opinion, but was not discussed in these Nature articles, are cases where scientists rewrite previous findings in different words, purposely hiding the sources of their ideas, and then during subsequent years forcefully claim that they have discovered new phenomena. Such ‘intelligent plagiarism’ is, unfortunately, often more successful because most scientists do not have either time or sufficient interest to carefully investigate where the original results came from.

    As such misconduct seems to me to have recently increased within the scientific community, I think that a thorough discussion of these issues, in Nature or elsewhere, is urgently needed." (Source: "Intelligent plagiarists are the most dangerous" Lennart Stenflo, Department of Physics, Umea University, SE-90187 Umea, Sweden. Nature 427, 777. 26 February 2004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/427777a. pdf here)

Research Misconduct (continued)
"Working against Plagiarism"
Hallvard J. Fossheim of the University of Bergen (UiB) and member of the National Research Ethics Committee authored a book chapter titled "Working against Plagiarism" in which he articulates 3 key arguments against plagiarism.
  • "Practical Consequences
    There are at least three ways in which plagiarism seen as de-rationalisation can he said to be a bad thing. First, plagiarism as de-rationalisation simply makes science less informed and thus less intelligent. A research community functions as a shared seat of activity. Each individual builds on an intricate plethora of results from other researchers, in many respects. Logically speaking, this interaction affects such aspects of research as methods, ideas, arguments, and empirical findings. Seen role-wise, the interaction takes place through discussions, talks, publications, teaching, etc. This broader cooperation is what makes research rational in the way, and to the extent that, it is rational. Without the original references and context much of this function is lost.

    Another aspect of irrational science is that it is expensive. Both covering one's tracks in presenting results and spending one's research time writing out what others have already done, constitute increases in cost and inefficiency.

    Third, a perceived lack of rationality in science is, admittedly, logically independent from an actual lack of rationality, in that one can have either without the other. But they will tend to go together. And that means that another likely consequence is a reduction in public trust towards science. This in itself is unfortunate, and seen in connection with its subsequent consequence, it is more than unfortunate. Most major decisions on a political level require scientific input as part of the process. The more results of research are seen as untrustworthy, the less of a role will they play in major debates and policy decisions. As research has less impact on them, the less rational public debates and political decisions become.

    These are all consequences of the de-rationalisation of scientific activity, not of the stealing or narrower credit-taking dimension of what is wrong with plagiarism. Thus, they are consequences of the de-rationalisation of science that are due to plagiarism whether or not individual victimisation is considered as a form of wrongdoing. 4    "
    ​
    "4 ‘Incidentally, the broader de-rationalisation view of what is wrong with plagiarism also makes it fit better with the other members of the FFP club (fabrication, falsification. plagiarism) than does the theft dimension, in that falsification and fabrication are not about theft from individuals, but about reducing the rationality of research. Similarly, the broader de-rationalisation view also relates it to phenomena like so-called ”salamiing" or "self-plagiarism“, which cannot reasonably be characterised in terms of theft."
    (Source: Part III. Responding to Research Misconduct, Chapter 16. "Working against Plagiarism" Hallvard J. Fossheim, in Integrity In The Global Research Arena, edited by  Nicholas H. Steneck, Tony Mayer, Melissa Anderson & Sabine Kleinert. Papers presented at the the World Conference on Research Integrity held in Montreal, Quebec, May 2013. ISBN 978-9814632386)

Research Misconduct (continued)
"Fostering Integrity in Research"
  • “In recent years, as ongoing globalization, technological advances, and other shifts have transformed research, it is clear that the research enterprise faces new and complex challenges in fostering integrity and in dealing with the consequences of research misconduct and detrimental research practices. Serious cases of research misconduct—including some that have gone undetected for years—continue to emerge with disturbing regularity in the United States and around the world. Increases in the number and percentage of research articles that are retracted and growing concern about low rates of reproducibility in some research fields raise questions about how the research enterprise can better ensure that investments in research produce reliable knowledge.” –Robert M. Nerem, Chair, Committee on Responsible Science
    (Source: "Fostering Integrity in Research" A Consensus Study Report of The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. 2017. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: https://doi.org/10.17226/21896)

  • Recommendations: (p. 208-224)
  1. RECOMMENDATION ONE: In order to better align the realities of research with its values and ideals, all stakeholders in the research enterprise—researchers, research institutions, research sponsors, journals, and societies—should significantly improve and update their practices and policies to respond to the threats to research integrity identified in this report.
  2. RECOMMENDATION TWO: Since research institutions play a central role in fostering research integrity and addressing current threats, they should maintain the highest standards for research conduct, going beyond simple compliance with federal regulations in undertaking research misconduct investigations and in other areas. 
  3. RECOMMENDATION THREE: Research institutions and federal agencies should work to ensure that good-faith whistleblowers are protected and that their concerns are assessed and addressed in a fair, thorough, and timely manner.
  4. RECOMMENDATION FOUR: To provide a continuing organizational focus for fostering research integrity that cuts across disciplines and sectors, a Research Integrity Advisory Board (RIAB) should be established as an independent nonprofit organization. The RIAB will work with all stakeholders in the research enterprise—researchers, research institutions, research sponsors and regulators, journals, and scientific societies—to share expertise and approaches for addressing and minimizing research misconduct and detrimental research practices. The RIAB will also foster research integrity by stimulating efforts to assess research environments and to improve practices and standards. 
  5. RECOMMENDATION FIVE: Societies and journals should develop clear disciplinary authorship standards. Standards should be based on the principle that those who have made a significant intellectual contribution are authors. Significant intellectual contributions can be made in the design or conceptualization of a study, the conduct of research, the analysis or interpretation of data, or the drafting or revising of a manuscript for intellectual content. Those who engage in these activities should be designated as authors of the reported work, and all authors should approve the final manuscript. In addition to specifying all authors, standards should (1) provide for the identification of one or more authors who assume responsibility for the entire work, (2) require disclosure of all author roles and contributions, and (3) specify that gift or honorary authorship, coercive authorship, ghost authorship, and omitting authors who have met the articulated standards are always unacceptable. Societies and journals should work expeditiously to develop such standards in disciplines that do not already have them.
  6. RECOMMENDATION SIX: Through their policies and through the development of supporting infrastructure, research sponsors and science, engineering, technology, and medical journal and book publishers should ensure that information sufficient for a person knowledgeable about the field and its techniques to reproduce reported results is made available at the time of publication or as soon as possible after that.
  7. RECOMMENDATION SEVEN: Federal funding agencies and other research sponsors should allocate sufficient funds to enable the long-term storage, archiving, and access of datasets and code necessary for the replication of published findings. 
  8. RECOMMENDATION EIGHT: To avoid unproductive duplication of research and to permit effective judgments on the statistical significance of findings, researchers should routinely disclose all statistical tests carried out, including negative findings. Research sponsors, research institutions, and journals should support and encourage this level of transparency.
  9. RECOMMENDATION NINE: Government agencies and private foundations that support science, engineering, and medical research in the United States should fund research to quantify, and develop responses to, conditions in the research environment that may be linked to research misconduct and detrimental research practices. These research sponsors should use the data accumulated to monitor and modify existing policies and regulations.
  10. RECOMMENDATION TEN: Researchers, research sponsors, and research institutions should continue to develop and assess more effective education and other programs that support the integrity of research. These improved programs should be widely adopted across disciplines and across national borders.
  11. RECOMMENDATION ELEVEN: Researchers, research institutions, and research sponsors that participate in and support international collaborations should leverage these partnerships to foster research integrity through mutual learning and sharing of best practices, including collaborative international research on research integrity.

Research Misconduct (continued)
The Research Ethics Act of Norway addresses research misconduct as "scientific misconduct" as follows.
  • "During the preparation of the Act there was wide debate as to whether the broad or the narrow definition should be used. After the Act's entry into force, we now have an official Norwegian definition. It goes as follows: "Scientific misconduct is defined as falsification, fabrication, plagiarism and other serious breaches of good research practice that have been committed wilfully or through gross negligence when planning, carrying out or reporting on research (italics added)." (Source: The Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees; Fraud and plagiarism. Text: Torkild Vinther, Last updated: 25. February 2016.  https://www.etikkom.no/en/library/topics/integrity-and-collegiality/fraud-and-plagiarism/#Definition)

    "In other words, the definition goes beyond FFP. It is also worth noting that the Act operates on the concept of so-called subjective guilt."  (Source:ibid.)
    See: Research Ethics Act
    ​
  • Norway's Research Ethics Act (Section 8)
    "Scientific misconduct means falsification, fabrication, plagiarism and other serious breaches of recognized research ethical norms committed intentionally or through gross negligence in planning, conducting or reporting research." ("Med vitenskapelig uredelighet menes forfalskning,  fabrikkering, plagiering og andre alvorlige  brudd på anerkjente forskningsetiske normer som er  begått forsettlig eller grovt uaktsomt i planlegging,  gjennomføring eller rapportering av forskning.") (Source: "Law on the organization of research ethical work (the Research Ethics Act)" LOV-2017-04-28-23, Commencement 01.05.2017, https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2017-04-28-23​). See: Research Ethics Act
  • "Consultation on revision of the Research Ethics Act" ("Høring om revisjon av forskningsetikkloven")
    "Hearing | Date: 09.07.2015 The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture submits amendments to Act 30 June 2006 No. 56 on the treatment of ethics and fairness in research (the Research Ethics Act) on general consultation. The consultation paper addresses in particular the research ethical responsibility of research institutions." 
    ("Høring | Dato: 09.07.2015 Kunnskapsdepartementet sender med dette forslag til endringer i lov 30. juni 2006 nr. 56 om behandling av etikk og redelighet i forskning (forskningsetikkloven) på alminnelig høring. Høringsnotatet tar særlig opp spørsmål knyttet til forskningsinstitusjoners forskningsetiske ansvar.")
​
Research Misconduct (continued)
The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity​ Revised Edition
"3.1 Research Misconduct and other Unacceptable Practices
Research misconduct is traditionally defined as fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism (the so-called FFP categorisation) in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results:
  • Fabrication is making up results and recording them as if they were real.
  • Falsification is manipulating research materials, equipment or processes or changing, omitting or suppressing data or results without justification.
  • Plagiarism is using other people’s work and ideas without giving proper credit to the original source, thus violating the rights of the original author(s) to their intellectual outputs.
These three forms of violation are considered particularly serious since they distort the research record. There are further violations of good research practice that damage the integrity of the research process or of researchers. In addition to direct violations of the good research practices set out in this Code of Conduct, examples of other unacceptable practices include, but are not confined to:
  • Manipulating authorship or denigrating the role of other researchers in publications.
  • Re-publishing substantive parts of one’s own earlier publications, including translations, without duly acknowledging or citing the original (‘self-plagiarism’).
  • Citing selectively to enhance own findings or to please editors, reviewers or colleagues.
  • Withholding research results.
  • Allowing funders/sponsors to jeopardise independence in the research process or reporting of results so as to introduce or promulgate bias.
  • Expanding unnecessarily the bibliography of a study.
  • Accusing a researcher of misconduct or other violations in a malicious way.
  • Misrepresenting research achievements.
  • Exaggerating the importance and practical applicability of findings."
    (Source: "The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity Revised Edition" ALLEA - European Federation of Academies of Sciences and Humanities (All European Academies) 2017. ISBN 978-3-00-055767-5) [Note: The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters and The Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters are members of ALLEA. See:  http://www.allea.org/members-2/norway/]

Research Misconduct (continued)
"Promoting Integrity as an Integral Dimension of Excellence in Research (PRINTEGER)"
  • D II.4 Legal analysis
    2. A variety of national normative frameworks​
    2.1 Normative frameworks based on statutory approaches​
    2.1.2. Norway
    "Norway put in place in the 1990s a centralised system of national committees for research ethics. 30 In 2006 was adopted a Law on Ethics and Integrity in Research, 31 developing the previous system and introducing a National Commission for the Investigation of Scientific Misconduct.

    The 2006 Law on Ethics and Integrity in Research defines its object as ‘to ensure that research carried out by public and private institutions is conducted in accordance with recognised ethical standards’. 32 It foresees the establishment of national research ethics committees and regional committees for medical and health research ethics, stating the two types of committees shall have expertise on relevant discipline and ethics, but also on law. 33

    Scientific misconduct, to be investigated by the National Commission for the Investigation of Scientific Misconduct, is defined as ‘falsification, fabrication, plagiarism and other serious breaches of good scientific practice that have been committed wilfully or through gross negligence when planning, carrying out or reporting on research’. 34 Said National Commission must be chaired by a person with judicial experience, 35 and its decisions can be appealed before the Ministry of Research, that shall appoint a special commission for such purpose. 36"
    30 European Science Foundation, “Stewards of Integrity: Institutional Approaches to Promote and Safeguard Good Research Practice in Europe” (Strasbourg, 2008), 33.
    31 Law on Ethics and Integrity in Research, Act of 30 June 2006), which entered into force in July 2007. [See: Research Ethics Act; this page includes the Ethics and Integrity in Research, Act of 30 June 2006]
    32 Section 1.
    33 Sections 3 and 4.
    34 Section 5.
    35 Judicial expertise is also integrated in similar structures in Sweden.
    36 Ibid"
    (Source: "Promoting Integrity as an Integral Dimension of Excellence in Research (PRINTEGER)" D II.4 Legal analysis Gloria González Fuster and Serge Gutwirth (Law, Science, Technology and Society (LSTS) Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB)) 07/06/2016. p. 8)
​
Final Report on the Incidence of Misconduct
  • " 3 Norway (p. 38)
    3.1 Research misconduct and its registration in Norway
    On the national level in Norway, the handling of research misconduct accusation is primarily regulated through The Act Relating to Ethics and Integrity in Research (Research Ethics Act)12. Even though there are regulations on the national level, cases are mostly handled on the local level, by the institutions themselves. The institutions have a high degree of autonomy when it comes to handling such cases, and do their own investigations. They are also responsible for punishing any misconduct they uncover.

    This autonomy has contributed to a high diversity of practices. Some institutions have ethics committees that handle misconduct cases, while others handle such cases ad hoc. The institutions are not required to report accusations of misconduct locally or to any central institution, and information about misconduct cases is therefore not readily available. In one instance, the Norwegian University for Science and Technology, Norway’s largest university, the responsibility is decentralized even further. This institution reported that handling misconduct is the responsibility of the different faculties, and that the central/top level therefore had little knowledge about the universities’ practices or instances of misconduct. 

    Norway has a National Commission for the Investigation of Research Misconduct 13. Its mandate is to be a national resource for institutions and private companies in cases of misconduct, and to supplement institutions in the handling of such cases. This commission handles some cases, mostly by request from the institutions, when the case is especially hard, there are conflicts of interest or the case has gotten a lot of public attention. The commission can also handle cases on its own initiative, but it is not in its mandate to sanction those they find to be guilty of misconduct. That responsibility rests on the institutions, and it is up to them to decide what to do with the commission’s conclusions. As the Commission only has a supplementary role, they send most of the cases that is reported to them back to the institution where the alleged misconduct took place.

    The Norwegian government is currently debating a proposal for a new law on the organization of research ethics, and this law is expected to be adopted in the spring of 2017. In the current proposal for this law, the institutions are required to report suspicions of serious breaches with scientific norms to the National Commission. Other standardizations of handling misconduct cases are also proposed. The institutions will have to adopt standardized routines, and they will have to introduce integrity measures like research  ethical guidelines and training in research ethics. When this new law is enacted, the availability and transparency of data on misconduct will increase significantly.

    3.2 Data collection method
    In Norway, there are 90 institutions that have research as one of its main activities, and that receives public funding. The high degree of autonomy and low degree of standardization among the institutions made the data collection challenging. We decided to limit the selection to public institutions. Public institutions are subject to the Norwegian Freedom of Information Act, which makes the information we were after in principle publicly available by request. The private institutions are under no obligation to divulge such information, and getting access to their information would therefore be a too taxing process. We also excluded the military research institutions. While these are also in principle subjected to the freedom of information act, their web sites cite restrictions on doing research on data from the military institutions without first acquiring permission, something we did not have the opportunity to get or dispute due to time constrains.

    After having limited the amount of institutions using parameters described above, we were left with 26. Our next step was to search the web sites of these institutions for information about cases of misconduct. A few of the institutions had some information available, for example in the protocols of the institutions’ board of directors, but only one of the institutions, the University of Stavanger (UiS), had the information we were after readily and systematically available. UiS has a designated group for handling accusations of research misconduct, and their reports and protocols from their meetings are available online 14.

    As very little information was available at the institutions’ websites, we sent a freedom of information request to all the selected institutions, where we requested information on all accusations of misconduct reported the last five years. We specifically stated that we did not want sensitive information, as this would need approval from each individual institution, which would be too time consuming for this project. Under the freedom of information act, one does not need any type of approval, as the information is already defined as public.

    In addition to the institutional data, we also collected the cases handled by the National Commission for the Investigation of Research Misconduct. Initially, we wanted to exclude this data, as it creates a lot of noise. Due to anonymization, it is impossible to determine whether the institutions in question are among the ones we have selected for this data gathering. Some cases mentioned explicitly that the institutions in question were museums, governmental agencies, NGOs or research institutes, and we could therefore exclude these, but many of the cases do not mention what type of institution was involved, or whether or not the institution was private or public. It is therefore possible that some of the cases included fall outside the perimeters we have set for this data collection.

    It is also impossible to determine which cases overlap with the cases we gathered from the institutions. It is therefore important to consider the two sources, the institutional responses, and the reports from the National Commission, as different. They should be used separately, as combining them will probably lead to the same cases being recorded twice. The National Commission also report on cases they hear about informally, but since such cases are not handled in any official way, we excluded them in this report.

    If all the institutions included in this data collection had responded to our request, the data from the National Commission would have been redundant, as these two sources overlap. Since only around half of the institutions responded, we included the data from the commission as a supplement.

    Before requesting the data from the institutions, we had some worries about how we would be perceived. Research misconduct is a potential risk for the reputation of the institutions, and they might therefore be reluctant towards handing us the information, even though it is in principle public. We were also concerned that the institutions might feel threatened by our request, and this would be unwanted, as they are potential users of the results. Because of these worries, we used a mild language in our data request, and we avoided referring to the Freedom of Information Act explicitly. This act is active regardless of whether one refers to it, so this did not reduce the strength of our request.

    At the time of writing, only 10 of the 26 institutions that were selected have responded. This kind of request should according to the law, and legal precedent, be answered within a brief time. Therefore, we now have options for filing formal complaints with the institutions that have not responded. When it comes to the transparency of the Norwegian system, our conclusion is that it is transparent in principle, but also that there are problems in practice. Non-responses is a transparency issue. It is also a problem that one needs to request the information from the institutions directly. Sending emails to, and corresponding with, 26 research institutions takes some effort. The combination of lacking responsiveness and the effort it takes to request the information makes it difficult to conclude that the system is transparent at the present time. As mentioned above, this will be improved with the new law.

    A few of the respondents commented on our data gathering. These comments were positive towards the project, and expressed a positive attitude towards more focus on research ethics.

    3.3 Results
    We divide the results by institution, as they are diverse because of the low level of standardization when it comes to how these cases are handled. We attached the spreadsheet VUB provided in our freedom of information request, but none of the respondents utilized it.

    After the institutional responses, we have included the cases handled by the National Commission for the Investigation of Research Misconduct, as found in their yearly report 15. Overall, the institutions reported seven relevant cases, and we found eleven relevant cases in the National Commission’s annual reports from 2011 to 2014

    3.3.1 Institutional responses
    From 2012 until 2016, the 10 institutions that responded reported upon a total of 7 cases. The outcome from one case was unknown, 3 cases were found to be grounded, 1 case was disproven and 2 cases were currently under investigation. All the allegations of misconduct were related to plagiarism.

    3.3.2 National Commission
    From the yearly reports of the National Commission it was possible to retrieve information on 11 cases. Seven cases were found admissible. After a preliminary investigation by the commission, all cases were found ungrounded. The commission did not instigate a full investigation for all the cases, but redirected the handling of the cases to the level of the institutions on several occasions. In other instances, the accusations were either found to be undocumented and later withdrawn or qualified as cases of ‘low scientific quality’. In one occasion, the commission declared that it does not deal with small breaches of good research practices nor does it make decisions in cases of professional disagreement."  (Source: Promoting Integrity as an Integral Dimension of Excellence in Research (PRINTEGER) Final Report on the Incidence of Misconduct. 30/05/2017. Marijke Van Buggenhout , Jenneke Christiaens & Serge Gutwirth (Vrije Universiteit Brussel - VUB)

"Working with Research Integrity—Guidance for Research Performing Organisations: The Bonn PRINTEGER Statement"
  • "Abstract
    This document presents the Bonn PRINTEGER Consensus Statement: Working with Research Integrity—Guidance for research performing organisations. The aim of the statement is to complement existing instruments by focusing specifically on institutional responsibilities for strengthening integrity. It takes into account the daily challenges and organisational contexts of most researchers. The statement intends to make research integrity challenges recognisable from the work-floor perspective, providing concrete advice on organisational measures to strengthen integrity. The statement, which was concluded February 7th 2018, provides guidance on the following key issues:
    § 1. Providing information about research integrity
    § 2. Providing education, training and mentoring
    § 3. Strengthening a research integrity culture
    § 4. Facilitating open dialogue
    § 5. Wise incentive management
    § 6. Implementing quality assurance procedures
    § 7. Improving the work environment and work satisfaction
    § 8. Increasing transparency of misconduct cases
    § 9. Opening up research
    § 10. Implementing safe and effective whistle-blowing channels
    § 11. Protecting the alleged perpetrators
    § 12. Establishing a research integrity committee and appointing an ombudsperson
    § 13. Making explicit the applicable standards for research integrity"
    (Source:"Working with Research Integrity—Guidance for Research Performing Organisations: The Bonn PRINTEGER Statement" Ellen-Marie Forsberg, Frank O. Anthun, Sharon Bailey, Giles Birchley, Henriette Bout, Carlo Casonato, Gloria González Fuster, Bert Heinrichs, Serge Horbach, Ingrid Skjæggestad Jacobsen, Jacques Janssen, Matthias Kaiser, Inge Lerouge, Barend van der Meulen, Sarah de Rijcke, Thomas Saretzki, Margit Sutrop, Marta Tazewell, Krista Varantola, Knut Jørgen Vie, Hub Zwart, Mira Zöller. Science and Engineering Ethics August 2018, Volume 24, Issue 4, pp 1023–1034. First Online: 31 May 2018. View/Dowload pdf here.)

​
Research Misconduct (continued)
"Handling of scientific dishonesty in the Nordic countries" (Nylenna et al. 1999)
  • "Scientific dishonesty in medical research has received increased attention over recent years. A survey among 274 medical scientists in Norway showed that 22% knew about cases of serious misconduct, and 3% were aware of falsification or fabrication of data. 9% of the respondents had themselves contributed to one or more incidents of misconduct. 1" (Source: "Handling of scientific dishonesty in the Nordic countries" Magne Nylenna, Daniel Andersen, Gisela Dahlquist, Matti Sarvas, Asbjørn Aakvaag, on behalf of the National Committees on Scientific Dishonesty in the Nordic Countries. THE LANCET • Vol 354: 57–61 • July 3, 1999. p. 58). [Citation 1: Bekkelund SI, Hegstad A-C, Førde OH. Uredeighet i medisinsk og helsefaglig forskning i Norge [Scientific dishonesty in medical research in Norway]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 1995; 1 1 5 : 3148–51. [In Norwegian with English summary]]
  • "In the Nordic countries, formal definitions have never been considered critical or even feasible, since dishonesty is regarded as ranging from minor deviations from good scientific practice to obvious misconduct. Scientific dishonesty has therefore been broadly characterised, and the establishment of a verdict relies on sound judgment rather than rigorous definitions." (Source: ibid., p. 58)
  • "The Norwegian committee can investigate cases only after agreement with the relevant institution, and anonymous complains are, in principle, rejected."  (Source: ibid., p. 59) [Note: LailasCase.com is not anonymous.]
  • "The national committees of all the Nordic countries may use external experts when investigating individual cases. Full reports of the cases, together with the decision of the committee, are sent to the person who made the complaint, the accused, and the employing institution, which is responsible for possible sanctions. The Nordic committees take on any case, irrespective of funding." (Source: ibid., p. 59)
  • "Anecdotal evidence, also from the Nordic countries, shows that younger researchers are particularly reluctant to bring cases of suspected dishonesty before a national committee because of fear of retaliation. Michael Farthing, chairman of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) has written: “I have been approached by a number of whistle-blowers from various institutions, each asking for my advice. My experience is that these people are not treated appropriately by their own institution”. 23" (Source: ibid., p. 61)
  • "Experience from the Nordic countries shows that national research councils can set up appropriate bodies for handling of misconduct in medical research. These bodies can be an integrated part of a broader ethics system including all branches of science and scholarly activity (Denmark, Finland), or separate committees for medicine and health sciences (Norway, Sweden). Inquiries in the first instance can be made within the faculty or institution (Finland, Sweden), or cases can be referred directly to the committee (Denmark, Norway). Even though the Nordic countries define scientific dishonesty in slightly different ways, the national committees’ judgment of individual cases is similar. The main difference between the four countries seems to be the conditions under which a committee can start an investigation." (Source: ibid., p. 61)

Research Misconduct (continued)
"A Theoretical Comparison of the Models of Prevention of Research Misconduct"
  • "It is said by eminent scientists that science is self-correcting and occasional fraud does not affect the overall sanctity of scientific literature. Self-correction does not mean that fraudulent research gets eliminated from the system on its own. On the contrary, it involves a laborious process of detection and investigation of research misconduct. Friedman says that misconduct investigation is a “very treacherous business” that leaves a lot of unpleasantness in its trail (Taubes, 1993). It also happens after the damage has already been done and the benefit of prevention is lost. Fraudulent articles may never get deleted and persist as pollutants of scientific literature (Kochan and Budd, 1992, Pfeifer and Snodgrass, 1990, Sox and Rennie, 2006)."
  • "Preventive methods may be classified in two ways. According to the “stages of research” at which they are employed, prevention can be primary, secondary, or tertiary. Weed proposed this type of classification more than a decade ago (Weed, 1998). The definitions utilized in this article are slightly different from those proposed by Weed. Primary prevention refers to the process of addressing the causative factors of misconduct so that misconduct does not occur at all. Secondary prevention refers to the corrective action taken after the misconduct has occurred but before such research is published or implemented in practice. Tertiary prevention refers to the damage control instituted after flawed research has been published. According to the “intended targets,” prevention can be of “person approach” type (aimed at the researchers) or “systems approach” type (aimed at the environments in which they work) (Reason, 2000). Amalgamation of the Weed and Resnik classifications leads to 6 different models of prevention, which are discussed below." (Source: "A Theoretical Comparison of the Models of Prevention of Research Misconduct" Malhar N. Kumar. Accountability in Research Policies and Quality Assurance Volume 17, 2010 - Issue 2. Pages 51-66. Published online: 19 Mar 2010 https://doi.org/10.1080/08989621003641132)

Research Misconduct (continued)
Deviation from acceptable behavior vs. blame
"Many people believe there is a distinct line between ethical and non-ethical behavior. This notion is not the case. In our opinion, scientific misconduct--or rather, conduct inconsistent with accepted scientific standards--is a continuum ranging from honest errors to outright fraud (figure). To be sure, honest errors are inevitable whereas intentional fraudulent behavior is obviously unethical and illegal." (Source: "Scientific misconduct: a new approach to prevention" Nylenna M, Simonsen S.  Lancet 367(9526):1882-1884. June 10, 2006. PMID: 16765743, DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(06)68821-1)
Figure: Slippery slope between honest errors and intentional fraud, with examples in the middle
Horizontal axis represents extent of deviation from acceptable scientific behavior. Vertical axis represents extent of blame, from excusable errors, via non-intentional but still blamable deviance, to wilful actions.
​Research Misconduct (continued)
​"Using criminalization and due process to reduce scientific misconduct."
  • "Abstract
    The issue of how to best minimize scientific misconduct remains a controversial topic among bioethicists, professors, policymakers, and attorneys. This paper suggests that harsher criminal sanctions against misconduct, better protections for whistleblowers, and the creation of due process standards for misconduct investigations are urgently needed. Although the causes of misconduct and estimates of problem remain varied, the literature suggests that scientific misconduct-fraud, fabrication, and plagiarism of scientific research-continues to damage public health and trust in science. Providing stricter criminal statutes against misconduct is necessary to motivate whistleblowers and deter wrongdoers, and the provision of basic due process protections is necessary for ensuring a fair and balanced misconduct investigation."     (Source: "Using criminalization and due process to reduce scientific misconduct." Sovacool BK. Am J Bioeth. 2005 Sep-Oct;5(5):W1-7. PMID: 16179287 DOI: 10.1080/15265160500313242)
Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR)
​"Introduction to the Responsible Conduct of Research"
Picture
Setting off on the road to the responsible conduct of research
(Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office of Research Integrity (ORI) "Introduction to the Responsible Conduct of Research, Revised Edition August 2007" Nicholas H. Steneck, illustrations by David Zinn. ISBN 978-0-16-072285-1)
Retractions
"Retractions: Guidance from the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)​"
  • "The Purpose of Retraction
    Retraction is a mechanism for correcting the literature and alerting readers to publications that contain such seriously flawed or erroneous data that their findings and conclusions cannot be relied upon. Unreliable data may result from honest error or from research misconduct.

    Retractions are also used to alert readers to cases of redundant publication (ie, when authors present the same data in several publications), plagiarism, and failure to disclose a major competing interest likely to influence interpretations or recommendations.

    The main purpose of retractions is to correct the literature and ensure its integrity rather than to punish authors who misbehave." (Source: "Retractions: Guidance from the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)​" Elizabeth Wager, Virginia Barbour, Steven Yentis, Sabine Kleinert, and on behalf of COPE Council. Croat Med J. 2009 Dec; 50(6): 532–535. p. 533-533. doi:  [10.3325/cmj.2009.50.532])

"Retraction Guidelines"
  • "Journal editors should consider retracting a publication if:
    • they have clear evidence that the findings are unreliable, either as a result of misconduct (e.g. data fabrication) or honest error (e.g. miscalculation or experimental error)
    • the findings have previously been published elsewhere without proper cross-referencing, permission or justification (i.e. cases of redundant publication)
    • it constitutes plagiarism
    • it reports unethical research"
      ​(Source: "Retraction Guidelines" Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). Elizabeth Wager, Virginia Barbour, Steven Yentis, Sabine Kleinert on behalf of COPE Council. September 2009. Web Version here)

Retraction Watch
"Tracking retractions as a window into the scientific process" "What a massive database of retracted papers reveals about science publishing’s ‘death penalty'’"
  • "Nearly a decade ago, headlines highlighted a disturbing trend in science: The number of articles retracted by journals had increased 10-fold during the previous 10 years. Fraud accounted for some 60% of those retractions; one offender, anesthesiologist Joachim Boldt, had racked up almost 90 retractions after investigators concluded he had fabricated data and committed other ethical violations. Boldt may have even harmed patients by encouraging the adoption of an unproven surgical treatment. Science, it seemed, faced a mushrooming crisis." (Source: "What a massive database of retracted papers reveals about science publishing’s ‘death penalty’" By Jeffrey Brainard, Jia You. Science Oct. 25, 2018, 2:00 PM)

    "The burden of misconduct
    ​    The majority of retractions have involved scientific fraud (fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism) or other kinds of misconduct (such as fake peer review)."
"Changing infractions
The proportion of retractions involving plagiarism of text —stealing someone else's or duplicating one's own— has risen; one cause appears to be the introduction in 2004 of iTehnticate, an internet-based plagiarism detection service. Fake peer reviews occur when authors give journals email addresses that they control, allowing them to review their own manuscripts. Flawed images include instances of intentional manipulation and of error."
Source: "What a massive database of retracted papers reveals about science publishing’s ‘death penalty’" Jeffrey Brainard, Jia You. Science Oct. 25, 2018, 2:00 PM)
"What’s Behind Big Science Frauds?"
  • "Retractions can be good things, since even scientists often fail to acknowledge their mistakes, preferring instead to allow erroneous findings simply to wither away in the back alleys of unreproducible literature. But they don’t surprise those of us who are familiar with how science works; we’re surprised only that retractions aren’t even more frequent.Remember that study showing vaccines were linked to autism? The time scientists claimed to have cloned human embryonic stem cells? Or that simple, easy way that was supposed to revolutionize the creation of such stem cells? Those were all frauds published in the world’s top scientific journals — The Lancet, Science and Nature. The vaccine scare has been associated with a surge in cases of measles, some of them deadly.
    (...)
    Economists like to say there are no bad people, just bad incentives. The incentives to publish today are corrupting the scientific literature and the media that covers it. Until those incentives change, we’ll all get fooled again." (Source: "What’s Behind Big Science Frauds?" Opinion, OP-ED CONTRIBUTORS Adam Marcus and Ivan Oransky. The New York Times May 11, 2015. "A version of this article appears in print on May 23, 2015, on Page A19 of the New York edition with the headline: What’s Behind Big Science Frauds?.")

​Retractions (continued)
"A Sharp Rise in Retractions Prompts Calls for Reform"
  • "Dr. Fang became curious how far the rot extended. To find out, he teamed up with a fellow editor at the journal, Dr. Arturo Casadevall of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York. And before long they reached a troubling conclusion: not only that retractions were rising at an alarming rate, but that retractions were just a manifestation of a much more profound problem — “a symptom of a dysfunctional scientific climate,” as Dr. Fang put it.
    Dr. Casadevall, now editor in chief of the journal mBio, said he feared that science had turned into a winner-take-all game with perverse incentives that lead scientists to cut corners and, in some cases, commit acts of misconduct.
    “This is a tremendous threat,” he said.
    Last month, in a pair of editorials in Infection and Immunity, the two editors issued a plea for fundamental reforms. They also presented their concerns at the March 27 meeting of the National Academies of Sciences committee on science, technology and the law."
    (...)
    ​Dr. Ness likens scientists today to small-business owners, rather than people trying to satisfy their curiosity about how the world works. “You’re marketing and selling to other scientists,” she said. “To the degree you can market and sell your products better, you’re creating the revenue stream to fund your enterprise.”     ​(Source: "A Sharp Rise in Retractions Prompts Calls for Reform" By CARL ZIMMER The New York TImes APRIL 16, 2012. "A version of this article appears in print on April 17, 2012, on Page D1 of the New York edition with the headline: A Sharp Rise in Retractions Prompts Calls for Reform.")

Securing research integrity in the publishing process - Tamara Welschot, Ombudssymposium 2018
  • Tamara Welschot
    "Tamara Welschot is since May 2017 Head of Advisory and Assurance, Research Integrity Springer Nature. Tamara looks after resources on research integrity and publication ethics for Editors, Authors and Reviewers and oversees projects on preventing and detecting misconduct. ​Prior to that Tamara was Director of Research Integrity and Publishing Services with overall responsibility for Springer’s strategy and standards on publication ethics, providing expert advice on ethical issues,  and overseeing other activities such as annual year reporting for Journal Editors, abstracting & indexing and digital preservation." (Source: Tamara Welschot - International Association of STM Publishers) [Also see: "Springer Nature's reply on fake review" Tamara Welschot. Nature volume 546, page 210. 08 June 2017]

"Legal threats, opacity, and deceptive research practices: A look at more than 100 retractions in business and management"
  • "RW: You write that “Classifying these reasons was not straightforward,” and you quote an earlier paper as saying that “For masterful obfuscation, it’s hard to beat the wording of some retractions.” Can you explain?

    DT: Many retraction statements just baldly announce that a paper has been retracted without giving any explanation. Examples: ‘The author has retracted this paper.’ ‘This article has been retracted.’ Others simply say things like ‘The retraction has been agreed before print publication based on discussions about the presentation of the empirical results.’ Such statements tell us very little. It may be that editors are keen to avoid giving offence, and are also seeking to avoid the possibility of legal action. Nevertheless, we don’t believe that vagueness is defensible. It makes it difficult to ascertain the extent of various problems such as fraud and plagiarism. Where flawed analysis is the issue, a refusal to spell it out in detail prevents other researchers learning from whatever mistakes have been made. They are therefore more likely to be repeated. Clear statements of the reasons for retractions are vital. And it is more important than this in disciplines where faulty research has implications for human well-being and may well have life threatening consequences." (Source: "Legal threats, opacity, and deceptive research practices: A look at more than 100 retractions in business and management" Ivan Oransky Retraction Watch November 23, 2018) [Note: RW = Retraction Watch; DT = Dennis Tourish, author of "Research misconduct in business and management studies: causes, consequences and possible remedies"]
     
  • "RW: You found that “Twelve papers in our database were retracted with no clear reason provided,” and one of your recommendations is to “Require journals to make clearer statements of reasons for retraction.” We have been calling for this since we launched in 2010, and others have done the same. Are you hopeful that things will change?
    DT: In the short term, no. I don’t feel confident about this. There still seems to be a great deal of complacency about the level of misconduct, and too many editors, publishers and academics continue to ignore serious problems.  Some editors and journals appear to be playing lip service to the COPE Guidelines. The journal webpages say the journal complies with them, but one of these is that clear reasons be given for retractions. Indicating who requested the retraction is not the same thing as giving a reason for it. In the longer term, a failure to give clear reasons for retraction is so manifestly absurd that pressure to change can only grow. However, it would be good if publishers and journals acted before they are compelled to!" (Source: ibid.)

"Research misconduct in business and management studies: causes, consequences and possible remedies" (original)
  • Abstract
    "...Our aim is to promote debate about the causes and consequences of research misconduct and to suggest possible remedies. Drawing on corruption theory, we suggest that a range of institutional, environmental and behavioural factors interact to provide incentives that sustain research misconduct. We explore the research practices that have prompted retractions. We contend that some widely-used, but questionable research practices, should be challenged so as to promote stronger commitment to research integrity and to deter misconduct. We propose eleven recommendations for action by authors, editors, publishers and the broader scientific community. "
  • "RECOMMENDATIONS
    Flowing from the analysis above, we make eleven recommendations that are directed to authors, journal editors and publishing houses, and the broader academic community. These recommendations seek to address the environmental, institutional and behavioural factors that are complicit in nurturing research fraud and questionable research practices.
  • Recommendations to Authors
    1. Maintain proper data collection records
    2. Clarify responsibility for data collection
    3. Specify all statistical analyses that were conducted
  • Recommendations to Journal Editors and Publishing Houses
    4. Require journals to make clearer statements of reasons for retraction
    5. Investigate the whole body of work of authors who have papers retracted for fraud
    6. Develop clearer rules for disclosure of penalties and conflicts of interest
    7. Label all retracted papers as ‘retracted’
  • Recommendations to the Broader Academic Community
    8. Redefine p-hacking as a deceptive research practice
    9. Substitute the term ‘deceptive research practice’ for ‘questionable research practices’
    10. Develop research misconduct policies
    11. Strengthen the education of PhD students to include more explicit, detailed and frequent consideration of poor research practices and the need for ethical research."
    (Source: Tourish, Dennis and Craig, Russell (2018) Research misconduct in business and management studies: causes, consequences and possible remedies. Journal of Management Inquiry. ISSN 1056-4926. PDF - Accepted Version Download (471kB))

"The visibility of scientific misconduct: A review of the literature on retracted journal articles"
  • "Abstract (...) This study treats retractions as an emerging institution that renders scientific misconduct visible, thus, following up on the sociology of deviance and its focus on visibility. The article shows that retractions, by highlighting individual cases of misconduct and general policies for preventing misconduct while obscuring the actors and processes through which retractions are effected, produce highly fragmented patterns of visibility. These patterns resemble the bifurcation in current justice systems."  (Source: "The visibility of scientific misconduct: A review of the literature on retracted journal articles" Felicitas Hesselmann, Verena Graf, Marion Schmidt, Martin Reinhart. Current Sociology Review 2017, Vol. 65(6) 814–845)

​"The ethics of scholarly publishing: exploring differences in plagiarism and duplicate publication across nations"
  • "Introduction (...) The integrity of the published literature is of particular importance to librarians and other information professionals who endeavor to meet the information needs of health care providers, educators, researchers, patients, the public, and others. Librarians' success in fulfilling these needs depends on the available literature, and having reliable and accurate information is critical to research efforts, including systematic reviews; evidence-based practice; and decision making that can impact patient care and safety, the education of future health professionals, and the public's health." (Source: "The ethics of scholarly publishing: exploring differences in plagiarism and duplicate publication across nations" Kathleen A. Amos J Med Libr Assoc. 2014 Apr; 102(2): 87–91. doi:  [10.3163/1536-5050.102.2.005], View/Dowload pdf here.)
     
  •  "Discussion (...) Perhaps the most striking illustration of unethical publishing practices can be found by considering plagiarism and duplicate publication together. Although distinct, these practices stem from a similar root in that both are issues of originality. Whether authors duplicate someone else's work or their own, they are not contributing new material to the knowledgebase in the field. Combining rates of plagiarism and duplicate publication highlights even more explicitly the originality problems occurring in select countries during this time period. Approximately 35% of the literature in the sample was retracted for plagiarism or duplicate publication, but more than 70% of the retracted literature by authors from Turkey, Italy, and Tunisia was duplicative in some way. Iran and India also had rates over 50%, and close to 50% of the retracted literature by Chinese authors was unoriginal. Several of these countries were also among those identified by Stretton et al. as having higher percentages of plagiarism retractions, using a definition that included self-plagiarism or duplicate publication 24. The United States, while not free of originality issues, had a combined rate of plagiarism and duplicate publication that was only slightly over 20%." (Source: ibid.)
Systematic Manipulation of the Publication Process
"COPE: Systematic Manipulation of the Publication Process"
"Definition of Systematic Manipulation of the Publication Process​ is where an individual or a group of individuals have repeatedly used dishonest or fraudulent practices to:
  • prevent or inappropriately influence the independent assessment of a piece of scholarly work by an independent peer.
  • inappropriately attribute authorship of a piece of scholarly work.
  • publish fabricated or plagiarised research.
Systematic manipulation is conducted with the goal of influencing the publication record and/or achieving financial gain, and involves more than one manuscript and possibly more than one journal. Systematic manipulation of the publication process may raise concerns at different levels:
  • Peer review manipulation. This type of manipulation can occur directly by manipulation or hacking of the submission system of the journal. It can also occur when authors are able to suggest peer reviewers and input contact email addresses for these peer reviewers on the submission system of the journal. The authors may suggest fabricated names or names of real experts, but the contact email addresses are falsified so that all correspondence with the suggested peer reviewers is directed back to the authors. The manipulators then submit positive peer review reports to ensure the manuscript is accepted for publication.
This type of manipulation may be carried out by a group of individuals who agree to act as false peer reviewers for each other’s manuscripts, thereby guaranteeing favourable peer review reports and boosting the publication records of the group. Third-party editing agencies may carry out this type of manipulation by suggesting peer reviewers on the authors’ behalf, for a fee, but supplying fabricated email addresses that they input on the submission system of the journal (although not necessarily with the authors’ knowledge). They then also supply the favourable reviews, thereby guaranteeing manuscript acceptance for which they can charge a fee. [Fig 1]."
  • Authorship for sale/papermills. Another possibility is initially inserting the name of an accomplished guest author, especially for single-blind and open review, and then replacing the name during revision or after editorial acceptance.
  • Substitution of a manuscript. Sometimes a high-quality manuscript is initially submitted (to ensure it passes peer review) and then a similar, but poorer quality manuscript (the authors’ own manuscript) is substituted after editorial acceptance
​(Source: "Systematic Manipulation of the Publication Process" Version 1: November 2018 COPE. publicationethics.org Developed in collaboration with: Springer Nature.)

"New COPE guidelines on publication process manipulation: why they matter"
  • "Publication process manipulation is an industry-wide problem. The full extent of it is yet unknown and many publishers will have little experience of how to identify and manage it. For individual journals and editors, it is extremely difficult to spot. Even if detected, the competitive environment of commercial publishing together with confidentiality issues naturally discourage individual publishers from disclosing their methods of investigation, findings, and measures taken to prevent manipulation of their systems. However, to effectively tackle publication manipulation, a coordinated and collaborative approach is needed. With this thinking in mind, members of the Springer Nature Research Integrity Group [8], in collaboration with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) [9], ran a workshop on publication manipulation at a COPE Publisher’s seminar in October 2016. At the seminar, a group of publishers were brought together to share their experiences of publication manipulation practices. The ultimate aim of the workshop was to agree a standardized approach to investigating and resolving such issues." (Source: "New COPE guidelines on publication process manipulation: why they matter" Jigisha Patel. Research Integrity and Peer Review 2018 3:13 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41073-018-0059-x Received: 12 November 2018 Accepted: 15 November 2018 Published: 26 November 2018. View/Download pdf here.)
Systematic Reviews
  • Norway
    "Systematic reviews are a prerequisite for evidence informed decisions because they provide a comprehensive review of what is known on the particular topic in question. By systematically reviewing existing research findings, new insights can be generated, knowledge gaps identified, and directions for future research found. The methods for developing a systematic review are characterised by 1) a clearly stated objective and pre-defined eligibility criteria for studies, 2) the use of explicit, reproducible methods, 3) a systematic search to identify all studies that would meet the eligibility criteria, 4) an assessment of the validity of the findings of the included studies, 5) a systematic presentation and synthesis of the characteristics and findings of the included studies. Randomized controlled trials play a key role in systematic reviews of the effectiveness of interventions, but other types of effectiveness-studies may also be relevant to include. The Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services produces systematic reviews to support well informed health policy making, clinical practice guidelines-development, and to contribute to evidence-based practices. The methods are described in the handbook ”Slik oppsummerer vi forskning” [“This is how we summarise research”], which is available online. The Knowledge Centre is also engaged in the wider global effort to produce systematic reviews, by preparing Cochrane- and Campbell-reviews, as well as systematic reviews that are published through regular scientific journals." (Source: "Systematic reviews on the effect of interventions" ("Systematiske oversikter om effekt av tiltak"), Gro Jamtvedt, Avdeling for kunnskapsoppsummering, Nasjonalt kunnskapssenter for helsetjenesten. G. Nor J Epidemiol 2013; 23 (2): 119-124. p. 119.  Also see: Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPH) (Folkehelseinstituttet):  "Slik oppsummerer vi forskning")

​Term (i.e., Term of Pregnancy)  
  • "Gestation in singleton pregnancies lasts an average of 40 weeks (280 days) from the first day of the last menstrual period [LMP or LMPD] to the estimated date of delivery [EDD]." (Source: The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee on Obstetric Practice & Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine: Committee Opinion: Definition of Term Pregnancy). Also,  the World Health Organisation (WHO) defines pregnancy duration as 40 weeks. However, it is important to note multiple studies, including a seminal Swedish study, Bergsjø et al. 1990, which analyzed 427,581 singleton births from the Swedish Birth Registry, have concluded human gestation is closer to 282 days.
  • "In cases of reliable menstrual dates, the average duration from LMP to vaginal birth was 282 days (median), 281 days (mean) and 283 days (mode), remaining constant over the years of study. One standard deviation of the mean was approximately 13 days, varying slightly with age and parity. Ten per cent of these women gave birth post term (past 294 days). The duration of cesarean section births became shorter over the years, in spite of little change in cesarean section frequency (9.5% in 1976-7 and 10.9% in 1979-80). Mothers aged 35 and over tended to give birth 2 days earlier than those below 35. Second and subsequent children of mothers below 35 had slightly shorter gestations than first-borns. Boys were born earlier than girls, on average. When LMP was unreliable, the distribution of gestational lengths was wide. We also noted a seasonal rhythmicity in average duration of pregnancy, with consistent shortening in the month of December." (Source: "Duration of human singleton pregnancy. A population-based study" Per Bergsjø, Daniel W. Denman, Howard J. Hoffman, Olav Meirik. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. Jan 1990;69(3):197-207.)

Talk the talk & walk the walk
  • Meaning: Back up one's talk with action.
    Origin: 'Walk the walk' is almost always said in combination with 'talk the talk', for example, "if you’re going to talk the talk, you’ve got to walk the walk", or "walk it like you talk it". This is a 20th century American alternative to various old sayings which epitomise the notion that 'talk is cheap', for example 'actions speak louder than words' and 'practice what you preach'. The context for the use of any of these expressions is in response to what is seen as empty boasting. People who are accused of such are said (in the USA) to 'talk a good game' or (in the UK) to be 'all mouth and no trousers'.     (Source: The Phrase Finder)​

Ultrasound: History within Obstetrics & Gynecology
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​Introduction
Key Concepts & Terms
"If you see fraud and don't shout fraud, you are a fraud." --Motto of Nassim Nicholas Taleb, (his Home Page)
“It's easier to fool people than to convince them that they have been fooled.”  --Mark Twain (attributed)
​“If liberty means anything at all, it means the right to tell people ​what they do not want to hear.” --George Orwell  [Note: The idea to use this quote attributed to Espen Egil Hansen]
Copyright: (© 2017 Lannon & Fæmundshytten)
Citation: Lannon E, Fæmundshytten L (2017) LailasCase.com
Data Availability Statement: Data are available; requests will be considered.
Funding: none; more specifically: "zero, zip, zilch, nada"